SERIES 


FIEST  BO;  KS  OF  NATUKAL  HT* 


ELEMENTS  OF  MAMMALOGY 


TIiE  USE  OF 


S  AND  COLLEGES, 


BY 


W.   S.  W.  RUSCHENBt    'GER,   M.D. 


FROM  THE  TEXT  OF 


MILNE  EDWARDS,  AND  ACHILLE  COMTE 


TORY   IN  THE   COLLECrES 
.'HARLEMAGNE. 


PL  ATJE  S, 


>ELPH 

ELLIOT, 

NORTi  TH STREE 

IS  •• 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


•«* 


BIG-ELK. — CHIEF  OP  THE  OMAWHAWS. 
(  Type  -of  the  American  Race.) 


RUSCHENBERGER'S    SERIES. 

FIKST  BOOKS  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


ELEMENTS  OF  MAMMALOGY: 

PREPARED  FOR  THE  USE  OF 

SCHOOLS    AND    COLLEGES, 

BY 

W.  S.  W.  RUSCHENBERGER,  M.D. 

Surgeon  in  the  U.  S.  Navy;  Fellow  of  the  College  of  Physicians;  Hon. 

Member  of  the  Philadelphia  Medical  Society ;  Member  of  the 

Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  &o.  &c. 

FROM  THE  TEXT  OF 

MILNE  EDWARDS,  AND  ACHILLE  COMTE, 

PROFESSORS  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY  IN  THE  COLLEGES 
OF  HENRI  IV,   AND   CHARLEMAGNE. 


WITH     PLATES. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
GRIGG  &  ELLIOT, 

NO.  9  NORTH  FOURTH  STREET. 

1845. 


Entered,  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1842,  by 
W.  S.  W.  RUSCHENBERGER,  M.D., 

in  the  clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  in  and  tor  the 
Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


T.  K.  AND  P.  Q.  COLLINS,  PRINTERS. 

(4) 


TRANSLATOR'S    PREFACE. 


The  "  First  Book  of  Natural  History,"  has  been  received  with  so  much 
favour,  as  to  induce  me  to  prepare  the  second  of  the  series,  which  embraces 
the  study  of  mammiferous  animals.  Although,  like  "  Physiology  and  Ani- 
mal Mechanism,"  this  is  a  Primer,  or  First-Book,  I  have  named  it, "  Second 
Book  of  Natural  History,"  with  the  view  of  designating  the  series  numeri- 
cally, and  thereby  obviating  confusion  on  this  point. 

As  in  many  instances,  the  same  animal  is  known  by  different  common 
names  in  different  places,  (the  Rock-Jish  of  Philadelphia,  for  example,  is  a 
Striped-Bass,  at  Boston),  I  have  added  the  systematic  names,  which  are 
generally  derived  from  the  Greek  or  other  languages,  and  presented  in  a 
Latin  dress.  To  facilitate  the  labours  of  the  student,  all  these  names  have 
been  given  in  a  glossary  with  their  respective  definitions,  and  etymologies 
The  Greek  words  have  been  printed  in  italics,  and  where  it  occurs,  the 
omega  has  been  designated  by  a  mark  over  the  o,  thus ;  (d.)  It  is  be- 
lieved that  a  knowledge  of  the  etymology  of  systematic  names  materially 
assists  the  student  in  understanding  and  recollecting  the  things  they  desig- 
nate :  it  is  therefore  respectfully  suggested,  that  teachers  should  require  their 
pupils,  when  reciting  their  lessons,  to  explain  all  the  uncommon  words  con- 
tained in  it,  or  even  commit  the  whole  glossary  to  memory  in  successive 
lessons. 

It  is  not  designed  that  the  questions  at  the  foot  of  the  page  shall  be  an- 
swered by  repeating  the  text  from  memory ;  but  the  pupil  should  be  able  to 
give  the  facts  in  his  own  language,  and  show  he  understands  the  subject. 

The  plates  were  engraved  by  Mr.  G.  Thomas,  (No.  37  South  Third  Street, 
Philadelphia.)  The  frontispiece  is  a  faithful  copy,  though  reduced  in  size,  of 
a  portrait  of  Ongpatonga,  (Big  Elk,)  Chief  of  the  Omawhaws,  drawn  for 
Morton's  Crania  Americana,  by  M.  S.  Weaver,  from  the  original  painting 
by  J.  Neagle.  For  a  lithographic  copy  of  this  drawing,  I  am  indebted  to  my 
friend,  Professor  S.  G.  Morton. 

In  preparing  this  little  volume  I  have  endeavored  to  avoid  errors,  and  I 
should  be  very  glad  to  feel  sure  that  I  have  been  successful  in  my  attempt ; 
and  though  men  of  greater  information  may  detect  faults,  I  still  hope  the 
book  may  be  found  adequate  to  its  object.  I  beg  critics  to  bear  in  mind  that 
it  is  merely  a  Primer,  and  not  presented  as  a  perfect  system  of  Mammalogy 
for  the  use  of  naturalists.  It  is  designed  solely  to  facilitate  the  primary 
studies  of  those  who  desire  to  become  acquainted  with  that  branch  of  natural 
history,  which  treats  of  mammiferous  animals. 

PHILADELPHIA,  December ,  1841. 


TO  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS. 


There  is  no  royal  or  privileged  road  to  knowledge.  For  the  prince  and 
the  peasant,  the  rich  and  the  poor,  there  is  one  common  way  alone,  and  it 
leads  up  a  laborious  steep.  And  though  there  be  on  this  republican  pathway, 
many  a  flower,  and  many  a  sweet  resting  place,  all  who  enter  upon  it  are 
doomed  to  incessant  toil :  for,  those  who  loiter  on  the  way  side,  instead  of 
reaching  the  temple,  fall  behind  and  are  lost  to  those  who  began  the  journey 
with  them. 

There  is  no  easy  method  of  acquiring  knowledge.  It  is  only  to  be  ob- 
tained by  close  attention  and  unceasing  labour.  No  matter  what  may  be 
the  quality  of  his  faculties,  the  brilliance  of  his  talents,  to  become  usefully 
learned  in  any  branch  of  human  knowledge,  every  man  must  toil  and  take 
advantage  of  all  the  means  within  his  reach. 

It  has  been  asserted  that,  to  become  familiar  with  any  branch  of  physical 
science,  it  is  only  necessary  to  see  with  the  eyes  and  hear  with  the  ears, 
without  resorting  to  other  means.  It  is  contended,  for  example,  that  Natural 
History  is  best  studied  without  "  the  use  of  any  books  whatever,  except  the 
book  of  nature  and  its  visible  illustrations."  This  notion  is  entertained  by 
persons  of  so  much  learning  and  influence  that  it  is  worth  our  time  to  in- 
quire  briefly,  whether  the  plan  has  pretensions  that  should  lead  to  its  general 
adoption. 

He  who  reads  only  and  draws  all  his  knowledge  from  books,  may  perhaps 
become  very  learned,  a  skilful  rhetorician,  a  formidable  critic,  the  author  of 
brilliant  theories,  the  inventor  of  some  ingenious  system,  but  he  will  never, 
by  this  means  alone,  be  able  to  praciice  usefully,  what  he  has  thus  learned, 
and  in  most  instances,  it  will  be  found,  that  instead  of  having  acquired  ideas 
of  practical  application,  the  memory  has  been  filled  only  with  words. 

The  student  who  is  content  to  follow  lectures,  will  not  be  more  successful. 
One  learns  less  in  this  way  than  by  reading  good  authors.  By  reading,  we 
may  comprehend  the  thoughts  and  opinions  of  an  author,  without  making 
him  say,  or  attributing  to  him  the  reverse  of  wh.it  he  has  written  or 
wished  to  express.  If  there  is  any  uncertainty  as  to  having  rightly  under, 
stood  the  text,  before  confiding  it  to  the  memory,  we  have  it  in  our  power  to 
review  those  passages  which  seem  to  us,  either  obscure  or  extravagant;  the 


TO  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS.          v 

book  is  still  there,  opening  its  leaves  to  whomsoever  would  consult  it  again, 
patiently  submitting  to  all  kinds  of  questions  that  may  bethought  necessary 
to  propound.  But  the  lecture  is  fugitive  and  instantaneous.  In  reading,  on 
the  contrary,  nothing  hinders  comparison,  or  prevents  the  judgment,  from 
being  exercised  almost  at  the  same  time  with  the  memory;  for  we  have  here, 
immoveable  under  our  eyes,  the  expressions  of  the  author.  In  a  lecture,  of 
all  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  scarcely  any  other  than  that  of  memory  is  in 
active  play,  for,  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  first  to  catch  the  words  of  the 
professor ;  and  then,  how  is  one  to  be  certain  that  he  has  not  misunderstood 
what  he  believed  he  heard  ?  A  word,  a  phrase,  which  escape?,  a  parenthesis 
badly  placed  in  the  discourse,  a  second  of  inattention,  are  enough  to  lead  the 
auditor  into  gross  mistakes.  To  what  individual  has  it  not  happened,  in  a 
simple  conversation,  to  be  under  the  necessity,  before  clearly  comprehending 
to  require  the  repetition  of  the  same  thing  once  or  even  oflener  by  his  in- 
terlocutor 1 

How  then  is  it  possible  not  to  be  mistaken  in  simply  listening  to  a  lecture, 
in  which  all  cannot  be  clear,  where  the  thoughts  and  phrases  succeed  each 
other  with  such  rapidity,  where  the  words  require,  as  it  were,  to  be  seized 
upon  at  the  moment  of  utterance  and  placed  in  reserve,  by  the  memory,  and 
not  to  be  submitted,  until  after  a  lapse  of  time,  by  the  pupil,  to  all  the  intel- 
lectual operations  necessary  for  judgment  or  deduction  of  opinion.  If  it 
is  sometimes  difficult  and  even  impossible  for  grave  and  intelligent  men  to 
agree  upon  the  sense  which  it  is  proper  to  attribute  to  the  written  phrases  of 
an  author,  that  are  under  their  eyes,  how  can  you  expect  students  to  be  more 
successful  when  they  acton  words  which  have  passed  them,  scarcely  striking 
upon  their  ears?  Who  has  not  witnessed  amongst  young  people,  between 
fellow  students,  disputes  about  what  the  professor  has  said,  or  has  not  said, 
upon  what  was,  or  was  not  the  opinion  of  this  one  or  that,  although  all  of 
them  may  have  listened  to  the  lecture  which  gave  rise  to  the  dispute  7  How 
many  errors  have  been  propagated  in  this  way;  what  baseless  controversies 
have  thus  arisen ;  how  many  men  have,  in  this  manner,  been  even  brought 
to  hate  each  other  ! 

He  who  listens  to  a  lecture  without  reading  afterwards,  may  be  compared 
to  a  painter  who,  having  fixed  his  eye  upon  a  passing  object,  retires  to  draw 
its  portrait  without  having  the  original  before  him. 

There  is  nothing  in  this,  however,  which  argues  against  oral  teaching. 
This  mode  of  instruction  has  the  advantage  of  bringing  forward  strong 
images,  of  keeping  the  attention  awake,  of  rendering  descriptions  more  clear, 
if  not  more  correct  than  those  given  in  books,  by  mingling  gesture  with 
vocal  intonation.  In  a  lecture,  the  professor  can  watch  the  eyes  of  his  audi- 
tors, and  pass  at  once  that  which  a  word  has  sufficed  to  render  intelligible 
or  repeat  the  same  thing  when  he  perceives  it  was  not  at  first  under- 


vi  TO  STUDENTS  AND  TEACHERS. 

stood.  Writings  carry  with  them  only  to  a  small  extent  this  sort  of  license  i 
in  a  lecture  the  eye  and  ear  work  together. — The  eye  is  the  only  sense  that 
acts  in  reading  ;  the  memory  retains  more  readily  what  it  receives  from 
oral  lessons  than  what  it  gets  by  simple  reading.  In  listening,  the  impres- 
sions are  more  numerous,  more  vivid,  more  agreeable,  more  natural  perhaps , 
but  they  are  less  complete,  less  exact,  less  pure,  less  clear  than  those  received 
from  reading :  therefore,  if  one  is  wrong  in  listening  without  reading,  he 
would  be  equally  wrong  to  read  and  not  listen.  These  two  modes  of  in- 
struction mutually  assist  each  other,  and  are  not  reciprocally  exclusive.  If 
you  would  profit  by  them,  listen,  and  retain  as  much  as  you  can,  and  then 
study  the  subject  in  those  books  that  treat  it  best.  By  reading,  you  rectify 
the  errors  of  the  ear,  and  listening  clears  up  what  may  have  been  obscuro 
in  reading.  If  you  would  clearly  understand  what  you  hear,  read  before  or 
after,  or  both  before  and  after  the  lecture  what  has  been  published  about  its 
subject. 

No  one  would  expect  to  become  a  poet  or  tragedian  by  simply  listening  to 
recitations  or  witnessing  the  representations  at  a  theatre.  Nor  could  any 
one  acquire  the  information  necessary  to  be  a  painter,  by  simply  walking- 
through  galleries  of  pictures.  He  must  resort  to  books  and  study  their  con- 
tents  with  care  and  attention. 

In  all  times,  and  in  all  places,  all  men  have  felt  the  necessity  of  going 
from  spoken  to  written  language.  Formerly,  pupils  drew  the  lessons  of  their 
masters  on  the  leaves  of  trees,  to  meditate  on  them  afterwards  at  leisure. 
Professors  now,  very  generally,  have  their  respective  courses  printed,  that 
the  student  may  have  the  text  always  at  hand  for  reference  and  study. 

An  individual  entering  a  city  for  the  first  time,  will  make  less  progress 
and  become  less  perfectly  acquainted  with  it,  if  he  depend  altogether  upon 
his  own  observation  and  verbal  directions,  than  one  who  joins  to  these  means 
of  information,  guide  books  and  maps.  To  become  acquainted  with  anatomy 
l»y  merely  listening  to  lectures,  or  by  reading  only,  or  by  dissecting  alone, 
unaided  either  by  oral  lessons  or  books,  would  be  the  labour  of  a  life  time, 
even  if  it  be  possible  at  all ;  but  by  joining  all  these  means,  by  listening  to 
lectures,  by  reading,  and  by  dissection,  he  will  lessen  the  labour,  abbreviate 
the  time  to  a  few  years  at  most,  and  attain  a  perfect  and  exact  knowledge 
of  the  science. 

To  read,  to  see,  to  hear,  to  study,  to  observe,  and  to  listen  are  not  too 
many  means  of  acquiring  solid  information  of  any  physical  subject.  Who- 
ever confines  himself  to  one  of  these  means  alone,  to  the  exclusion  of  all 
the  rest,  will  never  acquire  complete  knowledge  of  any  physical  science. 

To  study  natural  history  then  with  entire  success,  the  student  should  listen 
to  lectures,  read  and  study  in  books,  visit  museums  and  collections  ;  and  in 
order  to  join  the  observation  of  material  things  with  reading  and  lectures, 


TO  TEACHERS  AND  STUDENTS.  vii 

every  school,  if  possible,  should  be  furnished  with  a  museum  of  instruction, 
that  is,  a  collection  containing  the  types  of  all  the  genera,  that  the  student 
may  have  the  opportuity  of  comparing  them  with  their  oral  and  written  de- 
scriptions. In  this  way  only  can  one  become  a  thorough  naturalist.  Though 
this  is  not  the  object  of  every  one,  still  all  should  possess  sufficient  know- 
ledge  of  the  subject,  to  understand  the  principles  upon  which  the  objects  of 
nature  are  arranged  for  the  purpose  of  convenient  and  advantageous  study. 

If  the  reader  of  these  observations  will  reflect  upon  them,  and  decide  for 
himself  upon  their  general  truth,  he  will  not  think  it  expedient  or  profitable 
to  withhold  books  even  from  those  students  of  physical  science  who  have  ^he 
opportunity  of  listening  to  the  most  accomplished  lecturers,  nor  will  he,  I 
think,  be  of  opinion,  that  Natural  History  can  be  best  taught,  and  to  "  begin- 
ners  especially,"  "  without  the  use  of  any  book,  whatever,  except  the  book 
of  nature  and  its  visible  illustrations." 


MAMMALOGY. 
CONTENTS. 


LESSON    I. 

Classification  of  the  Animal  Kingdom. — Comparison  of  Animals. — Their 
Division  into  four  Branches. — Characters  of  each  of  these  Branches. — 
Division  of  the  Vertebrata  into  four  Classes.  • 

LESSON    II. 

Mammalia. — Peculiarities  of  the  organization  of  animals  of  this  Class. — 
Division  into  Orders. 

LESSON    III. 

Order  of  Bimana. — The  only  Species,  Man. — Anatomical  characters  which 
distinguish  the  body  of  man  from  that  of  the  other  Mammalia. — Hands 
— Feet — Station — Brain — Human  Races. 

LESSON    IV. 

Order  of  Quadrumana. — Zoological  Characters. — Peculiarities  of  their 
organization  compared  to  their  habits. — Division  into  three  families  ; 
their  Zoological  characters. 

Family  of  Monkeys.  — Division  into  Monkeys  of  the  old  and  new  Continent.— 
Description  and  habits  of  the  principal  genera,  (Ourangs,  Gibbons, 
Guenons,  Magots,  Cynocephalus. — Howling  Monkey.) 

Family  of  Ouistitis. — Manners. 

Family  of  Makis. — Description  and  habits. 

LESSON    V. 

Order  of  Carnaria. — Zoological  characters. — Peculiarities  of  their  organi- 
zation.— Division  into  families, — Family  of  Cheiroptera. — Zoological 
characters. — Tribe  of  Bats  —Peculiarities  of  Organization. — Habits. — 
Frugivorous  Bats  (example,  the  Roussette). — Insectivorous  Bats  (exam- 
ple, Vespertilio,  Oreillard). — Tribe  of  Galeopithecus. 

Family  of  Insectivora. — Zoological  characters. — Organization  and  habits  of 
the  Hedgehog,  the  Shrew,  and  the  Mole. 

LESSON    VI. 

Family  of  the  Carnivora. — Zoological  characters. — Peculiarities  of  organi- 
zation — Division  into  three  tribes. 

Tribe  of  Plantigrada.— Zoological  characters. — Organization  and  habits  of 
Bears  (Brown  Bear,  White  Bear,  Black  Bear). — Badgers. — Use  of  their 
hair. 

Tribe  of  Digitigrada. — Zoological  characters — Group  of  vermiform  digiti- 
grades. — History  of  the  Polecats — (Common  Polecat,  Ferret,  Weasel, 
Ermine). — The  Martens — (Common  Marten,  Beech  Marten,  Sable). — 
The  Otters,  (Common  Otter,  Sea  Otter). — Genus  of  Dogs.— History 
and  habits  of  some  races,  (Wolves,  Foxes). — Genus  of  Civets  (Civet, 
Common  Wildcat,  Mangouste  of  Egypt) — Genus  of  Hyenas. — Genus 
of  Cats. — Habits  (Lion,  Tiger,  Leopard,  Couguar,  Lynx,  Cat.) 

Tribe  of  Amphibia. — Zoological  characters. — Habits  (The  Seal,  the  Morse.) 

Order  of  Marsupialia. — Zoological  characters. — Peculiarities  of  organiza- 
tion.—Habits  (Opossums,  Phalangers,  Kangaroos). 


*  MAMMALOGY. 

LESSON   VII. 

Order  of  Rodentia. — Zoological  characters. — Peculiarities  of  their  organiza 
tion. — Organization  and  habits  of  the"  genus  Squirrel. — Squirrels  pro- 
perly so  called,  (Common  Squirrel,  Flying  Squirrel). — Organization 
and  habits  of  the  genus  Rat. — Marmots. — Habits. — Hibernation.— 
Dormouse. — Rats  properly  so  called,  (Mouse,  Rat). — Hamsters. — Field- 
mice. — Jerboa. — Genus  of  Castors. — Organization  and  habits  of  Cas- 
tors properly  so  called. — Genus  of  Porcupines — Organization  and  habits 
of  Porcupines  properly  so  called. — Genus  Hare. — Organization  and 
habits  of  Hares  properly  so  called,  (Common  Hare,  Rabbit). —Genus  of 
Guinea-pigs— Chinchilla. — General  remarks  on  peltries. — The  use  of 
hair  in  the  manufacture  of  Felt — Glue. 

LESSON   VIII. 

Order  of  Edentata. — Zoological  characters. — Division  into  three  families. 

Family  of  Tardigrada. — Organization. — Habits  (AY  or  Sloth.) 

Family  of  Ordinary  Edentata  (Armadillos,  Ant-eaters,  Manis.) 

Family  of   Monotremata. — Peculiarities    of    their    organization  (Ornitho- 

rynchus,  Echidna.) 
Order  of   Pachydermata — Zoological    characters. — Peculiarities  of  their 

organization. — Division  into  three  families. 
Family  of  Proboscidiana. — Genus  Elephant. — Organization. — Habits. — Use, 

— Ivory,  (Elephants  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Siberia.) 

LESSON   IX. 

Family  of  Pachydermata  Ordinaria. — Genus  Hippopotamus. — Genus   Hog 

(Wild  Hog,  Domestic  Hog). — Genus  Rhinoceros. 
Family  of  Solipedes. — Horse. — Habits. — Signs    of  the   age  of  Horses. — 

Principal  Races. — Ass. — Zebra. — Couagga. — Onagga. 

LESSON   X. 

Order  of  Ruminantia. — Zoological  characters. — Peculiarities  of  their  organi- 
zation.— Rumination . 

Ruminants  without  Horns. — Genus  of  Camels. — Camels  properly  so  called.— 
Peculiarities  of  organization. — Habits  and  uses,  (Camel  with  one  hump, 
Camel  with  two  humps). — Lamas,  Guanaco,  Vicunia). — Genus  of 
Musks. 

Ruminants  with  Horns. — Genus  of  Stags — Deer — Habits,  (Fallow-Deer, 
Common  Stag,  Roebuck,  Rein-Deer,  Elk)  — Genus  of  Giraffes. — Genus 
of  Antelopes  (Gazelle,  Chamois).— Genus  of  Goats,  (Wild  Goats, 
Bouquetin  or  Ibex,  Domestic  Gout.) 

LESSON    XI. 

Genus  of  Sheep,  (Argali,  Mouflon,  Domestic  Sheep). — Wool. — Merinos.— 
Genus  of  the  Ox  (Common  Ox,  Auroch,  Buffalo,  Bison,  Yack).— 
Use  of  Oxen— Milk— Butter— Cheese— Leather. 

Order  of  Cetacea. — Zoological  characters. — Peculiarities  of  organization.— 
Habits — Division  into  two  families. — Herbivorous  Cetacea. — Manati. 
— Common  Cetacea. — Apparatus  of  the  Blowers. — Genus  of  Dolphins, 
(Dolphin,  Porpoise) — Genus  of  Narwhals. — Genus  of  Cachalots. — 
Organization. — Habits  — Spermaceti. — Genus  of  Whales. — Organiza- 
tion and  Habits.— Whalebone.— Fat.— Uses.— Whale-fishing. 


MAMMALOGY: 

THE 

NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MAMMIFEROUS  ANIMALS. 

LESSON    I. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM — Comparison  of  Ani- 
mals—  Their  division  into  four  BRANCHES — Characters  of  each  of 
these  Branches — Division  of  the  VERTEBRATA  into  four  Classes. 

OF  CLASSIFICATION  IN  GENERAL. 

As  we  have  seen, when  considering  the  subject  of  "Physiology 
and  Animal  Mechanism,"  The  Natural  History  of  Animals  is 
termed  Zoology. 

For  the  convenience  of  study,  Zoology  has  been  divided  into 
several  branches,  the  highest  of  which  is  termed  Mammalogy. 
This  embraces  the  study  of  the  Natural  History  of  all  Mam- 
imiferous  Animals,  man  included,  and  is  to  engage  our  attention 
at  present. 

1.  The  number  of  different  animals  inhabiting  the  surface  of 
the  globe,  is  so  great,  that  in  order  to  study  them  with  ease,  it  is 
necessary  to  establish  amongst  them,  divisions,  and  sub-divisions. 
Each  of  the  groups  thus  formed  should  be  characterised  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  enable  us  always  to  recognise,  with  certainty,  the 
individuals  which  belong  to  it,  and  the  group  should  be  designated 
by  a  particular  name. 

The  assemblage  of  these  divisions  and  sub-divisions  constitutes 
what  is  termed  a  CLASSIFICATION. 

2.  In  the  classification  of  animals,  the  name  Species  is  applied 
to  an  assemblage  of  individuals  which  bear  a  strong  resemblance 
to  each  other,  and  which  are  perpetuated  with  the  same  essential 
qualities.     Thus,  man,  the  dog,  the  horse  constitute,  to  the  eye  of 
the  zoologist,  so  many  distinct  species. 

3.  Sometimes  one  species  differs  considerably  from  all  the 
others ;  but,  in  general,  there  is  a  number  of  them,  greater  or 
less,  which  very  much  resemble  each  other,  being  distinguished 
only  by  some  unimportant  differences  ;  the  horse  and  the  ass,  the 

1.  What  must  be  done  to  enable  us  to  study  the  animal  kingdom  with 
ease?     What  is  meant  by  a  classification? 

2.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  term  species? 

2 


12 OF  CLASSIFICATION  IN  GENERAL. 

dog  and  the  wolf,  are  examples.  In  the  natural  classifications, 
the  species  which  resemble  each  other,  we  unite  into  groups, 
called  genera,  and  add  to  their  peculiar  or  specific  name  a 
generic  name  which  is  common  to  them :  thus,  we  say,  to  desig- 
nate the  different  species  of  bears,  URSUS  arctos,  (the  brown 
bear  of  Europe);  URSUS  Americanus,  (the  North  American  black 
bear);  URSUS  maritimus,  (the  polar  bear,  &c.);  and  LACERTA 
agilis,  LACERTA  ocellata,  LACERTA  viridis,  &c.,  to  designate  the 
various  species  of  the  genus  LACERTA  or  lizard. 

4.  Each  animal  has,  as  is  seen  above,  two  names,  which  may 
be  compared  to  the  family  and  baptismal  names  of  men,  with  the 
difference  that  they  are  inverted  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
placed ;  the  name  of  the  genus  always  precedes  the  name  of  the 
species. 

5.  Those  genera  which  resemble  each  other  most,  are  united 
into  TRIBES,  and  the  tribes  into  FAMILIES. 

6.  The  families  are  distributed  on   the  same  principle,  into 
groups,  of  a  higher  rank  to  which  the  name  of  ORDER  is  applied. 

7.  Finally,  the  orders  are,  in  turn,  united  into  CLASSES,  and  the 
classes  themselves  are  the  divisions  of  the  great  BRANCHES  of  which 
the  animal  kingdom  is  composed. 

8.  Thus,  to  class  the  various  animals,  the  animal  kingdom  is 
divided  into 

Branches;  the  branches  into 
Classes;  the  classes   into 
Orders;  the  orders  into 

Families ;  the  families  into 

Tribes;  the   tribes   into 
Genera ;  the  genera  into 

Species,  which  designate 
assemblages  of  individuals. 

The  following  table  shows  still  better  the  manner  in  which  the 
animal  kingdom  is  divided  into  groups,  which  in  turn  are  sub-di- 
vided farther  and  farther,  until  all  the  individuals  belonging  to  the 
different  species  are  separated  from  each  other. 

"     3.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  genera  1 

4.  What  is  the   number   of  names  given  to  each  animal  ?     What  is  the 
character  of  these  two  names  ?     Is  the  generic  or  specific  name  placed  first 
ih  order? 

5.  What  constitutes  a  tribe?     What  is  included  in  the  term  family  ? 
6    How  is  the  term  order  applied  ? 

7.  When   several   orders   are  united  together,  what  do  they  constitute  ? 
What  do  the  classes  form? 

8.  To  enable  us  to  study  it  with  greater  facility,  how  is  the  animal  king- 
dom  divided  ? 


14  CLASSIFICATION. 


9.  Each  one  of  these  divisions  and  sub-divisions  of  the  animal 
kingdom  has  a  particular   name.     For  example; — one  of  the 
branches  is  called  the  branch  of  the  vertebrata,    (or  vertebrated 
animals,)    another   the    branch    of  the  molluscous   animals,  or 
mollusca,  &c.;  the  first  of  these   branches  is  divided  into  many 
classes,  one  of  which  is  known  as  the  class  of  birds,  another  as 
the  class  of  reptiles,  &j"c. 

10.  To   enable   the  naturalist  to  know   whether  the  animal 
which  he  studies,  belongs  to  this  or  that  branch  or  family,  &c., 
it  is  necessary  that  each  of  the  divisions  and  sub-divisions,  under 
consideration,  should  be  established  by  characters,  easily  recog- 
nised, and  derived  from  the  conformation  of  the  animals  themselves. 

1 1.  Therefore,  each  branch,  each  class,  each  family  &c.,  should 
comprise  all  animals  which  possess  certain  peculiarities  of  organi- 
zation which  are  not  found  in  animals  belonging  to  other  branches 
or  other   divisions.     The  BRANCH  of  VERTEBRATED  ANIMALS,   for 
example,  comprises  every  animal  whose  body  is  sustained  by  an 
internal  skeleton;  the  CLASS  OF  FISHES  comprises  all  vertebrated 
animals   which,  in  place  of  lungs,  have  branchiae.     To    know 
whether  an  animal  belongs  to  the  branch  of  vertebrata,  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  examine  whether  it  has  an  internal  skeleton,  and  this 
character   once  ascertained,  it  cannot  possibly   be  confounded 
with  any  animal   belonging  to  the  other  branches.     To  know 
whether  a  vertebrated  animal  belongs  to  the  class  of  fishes  or  to 
another  class,   we  must  ascertain  whether  it  be  provided  with 
branchiae  or  lungs. 

12.  [To  illustrate  the  utility  of  classification,  a  few  examples 
will  suffice:  if  one  would,  without  resorting  to  some  such  means, 
ascertain  the  name  of  an  animal  that  he  had  killed  in  the  chase, 
it  would  be  necessary  to  compare  it  with  a  detailed  description  of 
all  other  animals ;  for  if,  even  when  at  the  very  beginning  of 
this  inquiry,  we  should  meet  with  a  description  which  seemed 
to  correspond  to  the  object  in  question,  we  could  not  be  sure, 
until  we  had  run  over  all  the  other  descriptions,  that  we  should 
not  find  one  still  more  exactly  applicable  to  this  being  ;  the  labor 
would  be  consequently  almost  interminable.     But  if  we  employ 

9.  How  are  the  divisions  and  sub-divisions  of  ihe  animal  kingdom  designa- 
ted ?  What  are  the  examples  ? 

10.  By   what  means  is  a  naturalist  enabled  to  know  whether  an  animal 
belongs  to  this  or  that  branch,  or  family  ? 

11.  What  is  the  distinguishing  character  of  those  animals  which  belong 
to  the  branch  of  vertebrated  animals?  What  is  the  distinguishing  character- 
istic  of  fishes  ?  How  do  you  recognise  an  animal  that  belongs  to  the  branch 
of  the  vertebrata  ?   How  do  we  know  whether  a  vertebrated  animal  belongs 
to  the  class  of  fishes  ? 

12.  Give  an  illustration  of  the  utility  of  classification  ? 


CLASSIFICATION,  15 


the  method  of  classification,  we  shall  arrive  almost  at  once,  and 
without  difficulty,  at  the  end  of  our  search.  I  will  suppose  that 
the  animal  in  question  is  an  eagle ;  I  find  at  first  that  it  has  a 
skeleton,  and  hence  I  know  that  it  belongs  to  the  branch  of  ver- 
tebrala^  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  compare  it  with  animals  of  the 
other  branches ;  I  next  look  for  the  characters  which  distinguish 
the  different  classes  of  vertebrata  from  each  other,  and  when  it  is 
determined  in  this  way,  that  it  is  an  animal  of  the  class  of  birds,  I 
exclude  from  the  comparison  which  remains  yet  to  be  made,  all 
the  mammalia,  all  the  reptiles,  and  all  the  fishes;  I  next  inquire 
whether  it  presents  the  characters  proper  to  this  or  that  order  of 
the  class  of  birds,  this  or  that  family ;  and  when  I  have  ascer- 
tained the  genus  to  which  it  belongs  I  have  only  to  compare  it 
with  a  very  small  number  of  animals  from  which  it  differs  only 
in  some  few,  not  very  important  particulars.] 

1 3.  [The  use  of  classification  permits  the  abbreviation,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  of  the  description  otherwise  necessary  to  make 
another  recognise  any  particular  animal ;  for  if  we  say  that  an 
animal  is  a  vertebrata  of  the  class  of  reptiles,  of  the   order  of 
sauria,  of  the  family  of  crocodiles,  it  requiresj  in  order  to  dis- 
tinguish it,  only  to  point  out  the  characters  by  which  it  differs 
from   a  very  small  number  of  other  animals,  which  possess,  in 
common  with  it,  characters  peculiar  to  the  order  and   family  of 
which  it  also  forms  a  part.     There  exists  here  the  same  difference 
as  would  be  found  in  seeking,  by  his  description  and  number,  a 
soldier  in  an  army  in  which  all  the  ranks  were  mingled,  or  in  a 
well-regulated  army  where  each  division,  each  brigade,    each 
regiment,  each  battalion,  each  company,  would  be  found  in  the 
place  belonging  to  them,  and  carrying  with  them  their  distinctive 
signs.] 

14.  [By  the  assistance  of  zoological  classification  we  are  enabled 
to  assign  to  an  animal  the  name  which  belongs  to  it,  in  the  same 
manner  as  we  are  enabled  to  find  a  person  we  seek  by  knowing 
the  direction  of  his  residence ;  in  the  latter  case  we  first  inquire 
his  country,  then  the  state,  the  county,  the  town,  the  street,  the 
house,  and  finally  the  room  in  which  he  dwells  ;  and  in  the  first 
case  we  ask  to  what  grand  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  does 
the  species  under  consideration  belong,  then  to  what  class,  what 
order,  what  family,  and  to  what  genus  it  must  be  assigned ;  these 
questions  being  solved  the  work  is  almost  finished.] 

15.  As  we  have  seen,  it  is  by  the  differences  existing  between 

13.  What  is  the  striking  use  of  classification?     Illustrate  its  use? 

14.  What  does  zoological  classification  enable  us  to  do  ? 

15.  By  what  means  are  we  able  to  classify  animals  ?     On  what  principle 


16     THE  GREAT  DIVISIONS  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 

animals  that  we  are  enabled  to  classify  them,  and  to  distinguish 
them  with  certainty ;  but  in  order  that  a  classification  may  be  as 
useful  as  possible,  it  must  serve  to  point  out  the  resemblances, 
greater  or  less,  which  are  remarked  amongst  them.  Also,  in  the 
classifications  called  the  natural  methods  or  orders,  the  only  really 
good  ones,  the  characters  upon  which  the  divisions  and  sub-di- 
visions of  the  animal  kingdom  are  based,  are  selected  in  such  a 
manner  that  each  group  includes  only  such  species  as  resemble 
each  other  the  more  in  proportion  as  this  group  itself  is  of  a  less 
elevated  rank  in  the  classification.  The  animals  of  the  same 
genus,  for  example,  will  differ  much  less  from  each  other  than 
those  of  two  genera  of  the  same  family,  and  these  latter  will  re- 
semble each  other  much  more  than  those  belonging  to  different 
orders,  and  in  a  still  stronger  degree,  than  those  of  different 
classes. 

The  natural  classification  is,  in  a  manner,  a  synoptical  view  of 
all  the  variations  met  with  in  the  organization  of  animals,  and  in 
knowing  the  place  which  any  animal  occupies  in  such  a  method  or 
classification,  we  know  by  it  alone  the  most  remarkable  features 
of  its  organization,  and  the  manner  in  which  its  most  important 
functions  are  performed,  that  is  to  say,  the  most  important  part 
of  its  history,  because  its  habits  are  always  correspondent  with 
its  conformation. 

DIVISION  OF  THE  ANIMAL  KINGDOM  INTO  BRANCHES. 

16.  In  ranging  animals  according  to  their  different  degrees  of 
resemblance  and  according  to  the  differences  more  or   less  con- 
siderable which  distinguish  them,  we  first  remark,  that  there 
exists  in  the  animal  kingdom,  four  principal  types  according    to 
which  nature  seems  to  have  constructed  all  these   beings ;  they 
are  divided  into  four  great  divisions  or  BRANCHES,  namely  : 

1st.  Animalia  vertebrata — vertebrated  animals. 

2nd.  Animalia  mollusca — molluscous  animals. 

3rd.  Animalia  articulata — articulated  animals. 

4th.  Animalia  radiata— radiated  or  rayed  animals  or  zoophytes. 

17.  The  following  table  presents  the  principal  characters  which 
distinguish  these  great  divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom : 

are  the  characters  of  animals  selected  in  the  classifications  according  to  tho 
natural  methods  ?  What  does  natural  classification  enable  us  to  know  ? 
Do  the  habits  of  an  animal  correspond  to  its  organization  and  conformation  ? 

16.  In  classifying  animals  what  do  we  first  observe?  What  arethegrcat 
divisions  of  the  animal  kingdom? 

17  (O"  The  folio  icing  questions  ore  answered  in  the  table.)  What  are  the 
leading  characters  of  animals  belonging  to  the  branch  of  vertebrated  animals? 
How  is  this  branch  divided  ?  What  sort  of  blood  have  these  animals  ? 


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18  GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  VERTEBRATEP  ANIMALS. 
FIRST  BRANCH 

OF   THE 

ANIMAL  KINGDOM. 

ANIMALIA     VERTEBRATA. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  VERTEBRATED  ANIMALS. 

18.  The  vertebrated  animals  are,  of  all  animated  beings,  those 
whose  faculties  are  most  various  and  most  perfect ;  whose  organs 
are  most  numerous  and  most  complicated. 

19.  The  existence  of  a  solid  frame  in  the  interior  of  the  body 
enables  them  to  attain  a  size  which  the  articulated  animals,  mol- 
lusca  and  zoophytes  never  reach  ;  and  this  skeleton,  all  the  parts 
of  which  are  united  one  to  the  other  so  as  to  allow  of  motion, 
gives  to  their  movements  a  precision  and  a  vigour  which  are 
rarely  seen  in  other  animals. 

20.  The  portion  of  the  skeleton  which  is  never  wanting,  which 
varies  least,  and  which  is,  at  the  same  time,  the  most  important  of 
all,  is  the  bony  stem  that  encloses  the  encephalon,  and  which  is 
formed  by  the  cranium  and  vertebral  column. 

21.  The  external  senses  are  always  five  in  number,  and  the 
organs  which  are  the  seat  of  them,  present  with  slight  variation, 
the  same  disposition  as  in  man. 

What  are  the  characters  which  distinguish  animals  belonging  to  the 
branch  of  molluscous  animals?  How  is  this  branch  divided  ?  Have  animals 
of  this  branch  a  brain  or  spinal  marrow  ?  What  is  the  nature  of  their  nervous 
system?  Do  animals  of  this  branch  possess  an  internal  skeleton  ? 

What  are  the  characters  which  distinguish  animals  belonging  to  the  branch 
of  articulated  animals?  What  is  the  character  of  the  nervous  system  of  this 
branch?  Has  this  branch  an  internal  skeleton ?  What  kind  of  blood  do 
animals  of  this  branch  possess  ?  What  classes  of  animals  are  included  in 
this  branch? 

What  are  the  characters  which  distinguish  animals  of  the  branch  of  radiated 
animals?  What  is  the  form  of  the  bodies  of  animals  of  this  branch? 
What  is  the  character  of  their  nervous  system  ?  Have  these  animals  a 
heart?  What  is  the  color  of  their  blood  ?  What  classes  does  this  branch 
include  ? 

18.  What  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom  includes  the  most  perfectly  or- 
ganised animals  ? 

19.  What  are  the  chief  advantages  derived  from  an  internal  skeleton  by 
animals  of  the  branch  of  vertebrata? 

20.  What  part  of  the  skeleton  is  never  absent  in  the  vertebrated  animals  ? 

21.  What  is  the  number  of  the  senses  in  the  vertebrata?     What  is  their 
disposition  ?     [See  Physiology  and  Animal  Mechanism — Lesson  viii.  and  is.. 


DIVISION  OF  THE  VERTEBRATA  INTO  CLASSES.        19 

22.  The  apparatus  of  digestion,  in  this  great  division   of  the 
animal  kingdom,  offers  but  very  slight  differences. 

23.  The  blood  is  always  red,  and  circulates  in  vessels  called 
arteries  and  veins.     It  is  always  set  in  motion  by  a  fleshy  heart; 
but  the  conformation  of  this  last  organ,  as  well  as  the  route  of 
the  blood  in  the  circulatory  system,  varies  in  the  different  classes 
of  this  branch. 

24.  Respiration  always  takes  place  in  an  apparatus  situated 
in  an  internal  cavity  of  the  body,  but  it  is  not  always  aerial  as  in 
man ;  it  is  sometimes  aquatic,  and  then  the  lungs  are  replaced 
by  branchiae. 

DIVISION   OF   THE  BRANCH   OF  THE   VERTEBRATED 
ANIMALS  INTO  CLASSES. 

25.  Nature  seems  to  have  followed  the  same  general  plan  in 
the  creation  of  all  vertebrated  animals,  but  nevertheless,  these 
beings  differ  from  each  other,  and  some  of  the  differences  which 
they  present,  are  of  great  importance  in  the  exercise  of  life. 

26.  Therefore,  that  the  classification  of  the  vertebrated  ani- 
mals may  be,  in  a  manner,  a  picture  of  the  modification  of  their 
organization,  it  becomes  necessary  to  establish  amongst  them, 
four  grand  divisions,  called  classes,  which  are  named  as  follows  : 

MAMMALIA, 
BIRDS, 
REPTILES, 
FISHES. 

27.  The  following  table   presents  at  a  view,   the  principal 
characters  of  these  classes : 

22.  What  is  remarked  of  the  apparatus  of  digestion  in  this  great  division 
of  the  animal  kingdom  ? 

23.  What  is  the  color  of  the  blood  in  the  vertebra ta  ?     How  does  it  circu- 
late ?     How  is  the  blood  set  in  motion  ?     Is  the  conformation    of  the  heart 
and  the  route  of  the  blood  in  the  circulatory  system  always  the  same  in  the 
different  classes  of  the  branch  of  vertebrata  ? 

24.  How  does  respiration  take  place  in  the   vertebrata?     Is    it  always 
aerial  as  in  man  ?      When  respiration  is  aquatic,  is  it  effected  through  the 
medium  of  lungs? 

25.  In  what  respect  are  the  differences  presented  by  vertebrated  animals 
important  ? 

26.  How    many  classes  compose  the  branch  of  vertebrata  ?     What  are 
these  classes  called? 

27.  (KTQuestions  answered  by  the  table.')  What  are  the  characters  of  ani- 
mals  of  the  class  mammalia?     How  many  cavities-has  the  heart?     Is  the 
blood  warm  or  cold  in  animals  of  this  class  ? 

What  is  the  character  of  the  respiration  in  the  class  of  birds  ?     Is  the 
blood  cold  in  this  class  of  animals  ?    How  many  cavities  has  the  heart  ? 


20 GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  MAMMALIA. 

Viviparous,  and  provided  with  teats,  to  suckle  "]  (Classes.) 
their  young. 

Lungs;  respiration  simple ;  blood  warm  ;  circu-  }- Mammalia. 
lation  double  and  complete ;  heart  with  four  dis- 

"     '        ---  J 


tmct  cavities. 


Oviparous,  and 
without  teats. 


f  Respiration  double; 
blood  warm  ;  circula- 
tion double  and  com-  }•  Birds. 


Respiration        '™*  heart  with  four 
aerial;  with  J  ^tirict  cavities. 

lungs.         '      Respiration  simple;  . 
I  blood  cold  ;  circulation  \ 

incomplete;    heart ge.  \-Reptiles. 
I  nerally  with  but  th:ee  I 
L  cavities,  j 

Respiration  aquatic ;  with  branchia;  >  „.  , 
.blood cold;  heart wilh  but  two  cavities.  \  *lsfte8' 


LESSON    II. 

MAMMALIA — Peculiarities  of  organization  of  Animals  of  this 
Class. — Division  into  orders. 


CLASS    OF    MAMMALIA. 

GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  THE  MAMMALIA. 

1.  The  class  of  mammalia  is  composed  of  man,  and  all  ani- 
mals which  resemble  him  in  the  most  important  parts  of  their 
organization ;  this  class  is  naturally  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
animal  kingdom  as  comprising  those  beings  whose  movements 
are  most  varied,  whose  sensations  are  most  delicate,  faculties 
most  numerous,  and  intelligence  most  developed ;  it  interests  us 
more  than  any  other  class,  because  it  includes  the  most  useful 
animals,   either  in  affording  us  nourishment,  assisting  in   our 
labors,  or  contributing  towards  our  manufactures. 

2.  The  mammalia  are  born  alive,  and  in  the  early  period  of 
life,  are  nourished  by  the  mother  with  milk,  which  is  formed  in 
glands  called  mammce,  or  teats;  animals  of  this  class  alone  are 
provided  with  these  organs,  and  for  this  reason  they  are  called 
mammalia,  or  mammiferous  animals. 

What  is  the  character  of  the  respiration  in  Reptiles  ?  What  is  the  char- 
acter of  the  blood  of  Reptiles  ?  Is  the  circulation  complete  ?  How  many 
cavities  has  the  heart  in  the  class  of  Reptiles  ? 

What  is  the  character  of  the  respiration  of  fishes  ?  How  many  cavities 
has  the  heart  ?  Is  the  blood  of  fishes  warm  or  cold  ? 

1.  What  animals  are  included  in  the  class  of  mammalia?     Why  is  this 
class  placed  at  the  head  of  the  animal  kingdom  ? 

2.  How  are  animals  of  the  class  mammalia  nourished  ?    Why  are  they 
called  mammalia  or  mammiferous  1 


GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  MAMMALIA. 21 

3.  Circulation  and  respiration  are  carried  on  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  in  man.     In  all  the  mammalia  the  blood  is  warm,  and  the 
heart  has  four  distinct  cavities ;  two  ventricles  and  two  auricles. 
The  lungs  are  always  composed  of  a  great  number  of  very  small 
cells,  and  do  not  permit  the  air  to  pass  from  them  into  different 
parts  of  the  body,  as  is  the  case  in  birds. 

4.  In  general,  it  is  easy  to  distinguish  at  first  sight,  one  of  the 
mammalia  from  a  bird,  a  reptile,  a  fish,  or  any  other  animal,  by 
simply  considering  its  external  form,  and  the  nature  of  its  integu- 
ments ;  the  mammalia  are  in  fact,  the  only  animals  whose  bodies 
are  covered  with  hair ;  ordinarily  their  general  form  does  not 
widely  differ  from  that  of  the  quadrupeds  which  are  constantly 
before  our  eyes,  and  which  we  naturally  take  as  the  type  of  the 
group;  but  sometimes  they  are  not  recognised  by  so  superficial 
an  examination  ;  for  there  are  some  whose  skirts  are  completely 
bare,  and  whose  bodies,  instead  of  resembling  that  of  a  horse, 
a  dog,  or  any  other  one  of  the  ordinary  mammalia,  possess  forms 
proper  to  fishes :  the  dolphin  and  whale  are  examples  of  this 
kind.— (Plate  6, fig.  6,  7,  and  9.) 

5.  The   hairs  of  the  mammalia   are  very  analogous  to  the 
feathers  of  birds,  and  serve  in  the  same  manner  to  protect  the 
skin,  and  preserve  the  heat  developed  in  the  interior  of  the  body; 
in  reptiles,  fishes  and  other  cold  blooded  animals  which  do  not 
manifestly  produce  internal  heat,  there  does  not  exist  any  similar 
envelope. 

6.  The  hairs   are  produced  like  the  teeth,  by  small  secreting 
organs,  lodged  in  the  thickness  of  the  derma,  or  immediately  be- 
neath it.     Each  hair  is  formed  in  a  little  pouch  or  bulb,  which 
communicates  externally  by  a  narrow  opening.     They   grow, 
like  the  teeth,  at  the  base,  or  new  matter  is  added  beneath  that 
which  is  already  formed. 

7.  On  examining  the  hairs  with  a  microscope,   we  sometimes 
perceive,  very  distinctly,  that  they  are  formed  of  a  number   of 
little  horns  received  one  into  the  other,  (like  a  nest  of  boxes,)  but 
in  general,  they  have  the  appearance  of  a  simple  horny  tube,  the 

3.  How  is  the  circulation  of  the  blood  carried  on  in  the  class  mammalia? 
Is  their  blood  warm  or  cold  ?     How  many  cavities  has  the  heart?     What  is 
the  character  of  the  lungs  of  these  animals  ?     Does  the  air  pass  from  the 
lungs  to  different  parts  of  the  body  ? 

4.  What  general  characters  enable  us  to  distinguish  animals  of  the  class 
mammalia  from  those  of  any  other  class  ?     Do  all   animals   of  the   class 
mammalia  bear  a  general  resemblance  to  common  quadrupeds? 

5.  What  is  the  use  of  the  hairs  on  the  bodies  of  the  mammalia  ? 

6.  How  are  the  hairs  produced ?     How  do  they  grow? 

7.  What  is  the  structure  of  hairs  ? 


22  GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  MAMMALIA. 

interior  of  which  seems  to  be  filled  with  a  pulpy  matter.  With 
most  animals  they  are  cylindrical  and  larger  at  the  base  than  at 
the  summit;  they  are  often  more  or  less  flattened;  there  are 
some  which  are  lamellar  and  similar  to  a  slip  of  grass ;  some- 
times their  surface  seems  to  be  perfectly  smooth,  at  others 
channelled,  or  armed  with  slight  asperities,  or  even  presenting  a 
necklace-like  (moniliform)  aspect ;  finally,  their  size,  form  and 
elasticity  vary  very  much  in  different  animals  and  in  the  different 
hairs  of  the  same  individual. 

8.  The  names  by   which  the  different  varieties  of  hairs  are 
distinguished,  differ  according  to  the  nature  of  these  horny  fila- 
ments, and  according  to  the  parts  whereon  they  grow.     They 
are  called  quills  or  spines,  when  they  are  very  thick,  pointed,  and 
stiff,  and  when  they  resemble  thorns,  (as  in  the   porcupine) ; 
bristles,  when  not  so  thick  and  less  resisting,  but  still,  very  stiff, 
except  towards  their  extremities;  hairs  do  not  differ  much  from 
bristles  except  in  being  somewhat  longer  and  not  so  thick ;  like 
bristles,  they  are  generally  straight,  though  they  are  sometimes 
curly,  particularly  when  very  long.      Wool  is  a  species  of  long 
hair,  very  fine,  and  contorted  in  every   direction  :  and  down  or 
fur  is  composed  of  hairs  of  extreme  fineness  and  softness,  and 
is  generally  found  beneath  a  layer  or  covering  of  stouter  hairs. 

9.  All  the  mammalia,  except  the  cetacea,   (that  is,  dolphins, 
porpoises,  &c.)  have   two   pairs  of  extremities    or    members, 
namely ;  one  pair   of  thoracic  or  anterior,  or  upper   extremi- 
ties, and  one  pair  of  posterior  (inferior)  or  abdominal  extremi- 
ties;  but  in  the  cetacea  this  latter  pair  is  absent,  and  conse- 
quently, there  only  exists  the  thoracic  members.     The  structure 
of  all  these  animals  is  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  man,  and  the 
differences  observed,  principally  depend  upon  the  relative  length 
of  the  different  bones,  and  the  number  of  fingers,  which  never  ex- 
ceeds five. 

10.  The  conformation  of  the  extremities  varies  somewhat  ac- 
cording to  the  uses  for  which  they  are  designed.  They  may  serve 
1.  For   walking,   leaping,   &c.;  2.  For  prehension  and  touch; 
3.  For  burrowing  in  the  earth ;  4.  For  swimming ;   and  5.   For 
flying;  and  when  they  are  best  adapted  to  the  performance  of 
one  of  these  functions,  they  are  in  a  very  slight  degree,    or  not 
at  all  suited  to  the  others. 

8.  WheYi  do  hairs  take  the  name  of  quills  or  spines  ?    What  are  bristles '{ 
What  is  wool  ?     What  is  fur  ?    What  is  down  ? 

9.  How  many  extremities  have  the  mammalia  ? 

10.  Is  the  conformation  of  the  extremities  the  sawe  in  all  the  mammalia? 


GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  MAMMALIA.  23 

11.  When  the  extremities  are  designed  only  to  sustain   the 
body   and  to  move  it  over  the  surface  of  the  ground,   they 
should  possess  great  solidity,  and  be  at  the    same  time   slender 
towards  the  end,  that  they  may  be  the  lighter  ;    now,  long  and 
flexible  fingers  or  toes  would  be  injurious  to  this  solidity,  and  a 
considerable  number  of  these  organs  would  augment  the  weight 
of  the  foot  without  any  advantage;  therefore,  with  those  animals 
whose  four  feet  only  serve  them  in  moving,  (walking  or  run- 
ning) the  fingers  or  toes  are  generally  but  two  or  three  in  num- 
ber, short,  slightly  flexible,  and  completely  enveloped  at  their  ex- 
tremity, by  nails,  which  protect  them. 

12.  When  the  extremities  are  designed  chiefly  for  touch,  and 
the  prehension  of  objects,  it  is  altogether  different ;  they  are  then 
very  flexible,  terminated  by  five  fingers  which  are  long,  well 
separated  from  each  other,  and  so  moveable  that  one  of  them,  at 
will,  can  change  position,  and  apply  itself  against  the  others,  like 
a  pair  of  plyers  or  pincers  ;  the  nail  is  in  this  case  flat,  and   only 
covers  the  back  of  the  end  of  the  fingers,  the  lower  surface  of 
which  resembles  a  soft  cushion  ;  and  the  whole  hand  can   move 
upon  the  fore-arm,  to   direct  itself  inwardly  or  outwardly,  as 
occasion  may  require. 

13.  The  hoofs  of  the  horse  may  be  taken  as  an  example  of 
the   mode  of  conformation   of  extremities,   which  are  designed 
only  for  moving  the  animal ;  and  the  hand  of  man,  as  an  example 
of  the  conformation  of  these  same  organs  when  they  are  designed 
for  prehension  and  touch.     But  between  these  extremes  there  are 
a  great  many  intermediate  degrees,  and  with  a  great  many  of  the 
mammalia,  the  paws  serve  at  once  the  purposes  of  progression, 
prehension,  and  touch,  and  discharge  best,  either  one  or  other  of 
these  functions,  according  as  their  conformation  most  approaches 
to  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  modes  of  structure,  just  spoken  of. 

14.  The  mammalia  that  climb  best,  generally  have  paws  more 
or  less  like  our  hand,  and  suited  for  seizing  hold  of  objects  ;  there 
are  some,  however,  that  by  the  assistance  of  very  sharp  nails, 

11.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  extremiiios  when  they  are  designed 
merely  to  sustain  the  animal  in  walking?     Have  they  many  long  flexible 
toes?     How  imny  toes  has  an  animal  that  usually  goes  on  all  fours? 

12.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  extremities  when  designed   for  touch 
or  prehension  ? 

13.  Give  examples  of  the  different  conformation  of  extremities  according 
to  their  uses  ? 

14.  What  are  the  means  or  instruments  provided  for  those  mammalia  that 
climb?     Do  any  of  this  cla-s   ever  assist  themselves  in  climbing  by  any 
other  means  than  their  hands  or  feet? 


24 GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  MAMMALIA. 

can  climb  trees  simply  grappling  them,  although  their  fingers  are 
neither  long,  veiy  flexible,  nor  opposable  one  to  the  other.  Most 
animals  of  this  kind  have  a  long  tail  which  serves  them  as  a 
balance-pole,  and  sometimes  this  organ  is  so  flexible  as  to  be 
twisted  around  branches,  and  take  the  place  of  a  species  of  hand, 

1 5.  Differences  are  also  observed  in  the  conformation  of  the 
extremities,  according  as  the  animal  is  designed  to  run  or  leap ; 
in  the  latter  case,  the  posterior  extremities  are  generally  much 
longer  than  the  anterior — for  example,  the  rabbit  and  particularly 
the  kangaroo.     (Plate  3,jtf</.  11,  and  plate  4,  jig.  11.) 

16.  When  the  paws  are  to  be  used  by  the  animal  for  burrow- 
ing in  the  earth,  they  are  short,  (which   gives   them   greater 
strength,)  stout,  of  a  particular  form,  and   armed  with  strong 
nails.     Of  all  the  mammalia,  the  thoracic  extremities  of  the  mole 
possess  the  best  conformation  for  this  purpose.  (Plate  2,  /?#.  10.) 

17.  In  order  that  the  extremities  be  formed  in  the  most  favor- 
able manner  for  swimming,  they  must  be  short  and  broad  so  as 
to  strike  the  water  with  the  greater  force  and  act  upon  a  large 
surface.     With  those  mammalia  whose  lives  are  entirely  aquatic, 
these  organs  are  formed  like  great  battledoors,  closely  resembling 
the  fins  of  fishes ;  the  arm  and  fore-arm  become  so  short  that  the 
paw  seems  to  be  attached  immediately  to  the  body ;  and  the 
fingers  are  all  concealed  beneath  a  common  skin.  (Plate  6,  /?</.  6.) 
When  an  animal  has  to  make  use  of  these  fins  to  drag  itself  on 
shore,  their  conformation  approaches  nearer  to  that  of  the  paw  of 
an  ordinary  quadruped,  ( Plate  3,  /?//.  7,)  and  when  the  extremi- 
ties are   to  be  chiefly  used  in  running,  without  ceasing  to  be 
appropriate   for  swimming,  the  fingers  (toes)  are  simply  united 
by  a  loose  fold  of  skin,  called  web,  which  is  stretched  when  they 
are  separated,  and  thus  affords  the  requisite  breadth  to  the  paw. 

18.  When  the  extremities  of  the  mammalia  are  formed  for 
flying,  they  also  present  a  peculiar  disposition ;  the  thoracic  ex- 
tremities become  very  long,  and  the  fingers  especially  are  elon- 
gated out  of  proportion,  and  sustain  a  fold  of  skin  from  the  sides, 
as  the  whale-bones  of  an  umbrella  stretch  the  silk  or   cloth. 
Bats  afford    us  an  example  of  this  kind  of  organization ;  their 

f  hands  are  in  a  manner  transformed  into  true  wings,  (Plate  2,/fyr  1.) 

15.  What  is  the  character  of  the  extremities  of  those  animals  that  run  or 
leap? 

]  6.  What  is  the  conformation  of  the  extremities  of  burrowing  animals  ? 
What  animal  has  extremities  best  adapted  for  burrowing  ? 

17.  What  is  the  form  of  the  extremities  of  swimming  animals  ?  What  is 
the  form  of  the  extremities  of  aquatic  mammalia  ? 

18.  What  is  the  form  of  the  extremities  of  those  mammalia  that  fly  ? 


GENERAL  CHARACTERS  OF  MAMMALIA. .  25 

There  are  too,  some  mammalia,  having  extremities  formed  for 
running,  or  for  climbing  solely,  that  can  also  sustain  themselves 
for  a  short  time  in  the  air  by  the  assistance  of  a  fold  of  skin 
which  extends  between  the  posterior  and  anterior  paws,  consti- 
tuting a  sort  of  parachute;  (Plate  4,  Jig.  8.)  but  this  mode  of 
organization  does  not  give  them  the  power  of  actually  flying,  like 
those  above  described. 

19.  Of  all  animals,  the  mammalia   have   most   intelligence, 
and  they  also  possess  the  most  voluminous  brains.     But  in  this 
respect  they  present  very  striking  differences  amongst  themselves, 
and  it  is  generally  remarked,  they  are  less  favored  in  this  parti- 
cular, in  proportion  as  they  depart  in  resemblance  from  man,  as 
their  forehead  is  more  retreating,  and  the  face  or  snout,  more 
projecting. 

20.  There  also  exists,  very  great  differences  among  the  mam- 
malia as  respects  their  teeth;  and  as  the  conformation  of  these 
organs  is  always  in  relation  to  the  kind  of  food  upon  which  the 
animal  is  destined  to  feed,  we  will  say  a  few  words  about  them. 

2 1 .  Some  mammalia  that  feed  upon  soft  insects,  (as  ants,)  or 
on  very  small  fishes  which  they  can  swallow  whole,  are  desti- 
tute of  teeth;  but  almost  all  animals  of  this  class  possess  teeth 
designed  for  the  division   of  food.     The  molar  teeth  are  gene- 
rally the  most  useful,  and  their  presence  is  more  constant  than  that 
of  the  incisor  or  canine  teeth ;  the  latter  are  necessary  to  seize 
and  divide  a  living  prey,  and  consequently  are  not  wanting  in 
any  carnivorous  animal ;  but  they  are  less  useful  to  herbivorous 
animals,  and  the  one  or  the  other  kind  is  absent  in  most  mammalia 
that  live  upon  vegetable  diet.     Sometimes,  too,  they  afford  no 
assistance  in  mastication,  though  very  much  developed,  and  con- 
stitute a  more  or  less  powerful  means  of  defence.     The  form  of 
the  molar  teeth  varies  according  to  the  food  of  the  animal. 

22.  In  those  animals  that  live  upon  flesh,  the  molars  are  com- 
pressed and  cutting,  and  so  arranged  as  to  act  one  against  the  other 
like  the  blades  of  a  pair  of  scissors;  (Plate  2,  fig.   12.)  in  those 
which  feed  upon   insects,  these  teeth  are  studded  with  contig- 

19.  What  class  of  animals  possc.-s  the  largest  brains  ?     Is  the  brain  of  the 
same  size  in  all  the  mammalia? 

20.  Are  the  teeth  of  all  the  mammalia  the  same  ? 

21.  Are  any  of  the  mammalia  destitute  of  teeth  ?     What  kind  of  teeth  is 
most  generally  present  in  the  mammalia  ?     In  what  family  of  animals  are 
the  incisor  and  canine  teeth  always  present  ?     Does  the  form  of  the  molar 
teeth  depend  upon  the  kind  of  food  upon  which  the  animal  feeds? 

22.  What  is  the  form  of  the  molar  teeth  in  tho-e  animals  that  feed  on  flesh/ 
What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  teeth  of  animals  that  feed  on  insects  ?  What 
are  the  peculiarities  of  the  teeth  of  animals  that  feed  on  vegetables   and 
fruits  ? 


26 DIVISION  OF  MAMMALIA  INTO  ORDERS. 

nous  points  which  correspond  in  a  manner,  and  are  received 
into  the  vacuities  left  between  them,  on  the  opposing  teeth  ; 
(Plate  2,  fig.  5.)  and  when  the  food  of  the  animal  consists  prin- 
cipally of  the  tender  fruits,  these  teeth  are  simply  armed  with 
blunt  tubercles,  (Plate  2,  fig.  6. )  and  when  destined  to  grind 
vegetable  substances  which  are  more  or  less  hard,  they  are  termi- 
nated by  a  broad  surface  flattened  and  rough  like  that  of  a  mill- 
stone. 

DIVISION  OF  THE  CLASS  OF  MAMMALIA  INTO  ORDERS. 

23.  The  class  of  mammalia  is  divided  into  nine  orders,  which 
are  easily  distinguished  one  from  the  other,  by  the  differences 
observable  in  the  conformation  of  their  extremities,  of  their  teeth 
and  some  other  organs.  The  chief  characteristics  of  these 
groups  are  indicated,  in  the  following  synoptical  table  of  the 
classification  of  the  mammalia : — 


23.  How  is  the  class  of  mammalia  divided?  How  are  these  orders  dis- 
tinguished from  each  other  ? 

O"  (Questions  answered  in  the  table.}  What  are  the  characters  of  the 
order  Bimana?  What  characterises  the  Quadrumana  ?  What  ia  the  num- 
ber of  their  hands  1 

What  characterises  the  order  Carnaria  ?     Have  they  any  hands  ? 

What  characterises  the  order  Rodentia  ? 

What  characterises  the  order  Edentata  ? 

By  what  part  of  the   animal  is  the  order  Marsupialia  distinguished  ? 

What  characterises  the  order  of  Pachydermata  ? 

What  characterises  the  order  of  Ruminantia  ? 

What  is  the  conformation  of  the  stomach  in  animals  of  the  two  last  orders  ? 

What  characterises  the  order  Cetacea  ? 


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28  NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN. 


LESSON    III. 

ORDER  OP  BIMANA. —  The  only  species,  man, — Anatomical 
characters  which  distinguish  the  body  of  man  fiom  that  of  the 
other  mammalia. — Hands. — Feet. — Station. —  Brain. —  Human 
Races. 


ORDER     OF     BIMANA. 


1.  The  order  of  Bimana — two-handed — easily  distinguished 
from  the  rest  of  the  class  of  mammalia,  by  the  existence  of  hands, 
on  the  thoracic  extremities  only,  and  by  many  other  anatomical 
characters,  is  composed  of  but  one  genus  embracing  one  species 
only: 

MAN.— HOMO. 

2.  Our  organization  differs  very  little  from  that  of  a  great  num- 
ber of  other  mammalia;  the  functions  of  the  life  of  nutrition  are 
carried  on  in  the  same  manner  in  them  as  with  us,  and  the  struc- 
ture of  the  organs  of  our  senses  presents  only  a  few  peculiarities  ; 
but   still  man  is  placed    at  an  immense  distance  from  all  other 
animals,  and  what  especially  distinguishes  him,  is  that  wonderful 
intelligence  with  which  he  is  endowed,  and  the  possession  of  an 
immortal  soul. 

The  principal  physical  differences  which  distinguish  man,  are: 

3.  1.    The  great  devel)f>ernent  of  his  bram,  which  produces 
the  prominence  of  his  forehead. 

4.  2.   The  conformation  of  his  hands.     The  thoracic  extremi- 
ties of  man  are  disposed  in  the  most  favourable  manner  for  the 
exercise  of  their  functions  as  organs  of  prehension  and  touch  :  the 
lingers  are  long  and  flexible ;  they  all  have  the  power  of  moving 
separately  and  distinctly  one  from  the  other,  which  is   not   the 
case  in   other  animals,  not  even  with  those  that  possess  hands. 
The  thumb,  which  is  opposable  to  them,  is  much  longer  in  pro- 
portion than  in  monkeys,  and,  consequently,  more  readily  ap- 
plied to  the  extremity  of  the  palmar  face  of  the  other  fingers, 
.and  better  enabled  to  take  hold  of  small  objects.     The  nails  only 
cover  the  dorsal  faces  of  the  extremities  of  the  fingers,  and  they 


1.  What   is  the  meaning  of  the  word   Bimana?     How  are  the  Bimana 
•distinguished  ?     How  many  genera  and  species  compose  the  order  Bimana? 

2.  Does  the  organization  of  the  Bimana  essentially  differ  from  that  of  the 
mammalia  ?  What  especially  distinguishes  man  from  all  other  animals  ? 

3.  How  does  the  brain  of  man  differ  from  that  of  the  other  mammalia? 

4.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  hand  of  man  ? 


NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN. 29 

are  wide  and  flat,  thus  affording  a  support  to  the  touch,  without 
in  the  least  interfering  with  its  delicacy;  finally,  the  whole  hand 
is  capable  of  performing  extensive  rotatory  movements. 

5.  His  vertical  and  biped  position.     In  all  the  mammalia,  with 
the  exception  of  man,  the  superior  (anterior)  extremities  are  ap- 
plied to  the  same  uses  as  the  lower  (or  posterior;  extremities,  and 
are  always  employed  in  locomotion,  even  when  they  are  formed  so 
as  to  be  used  also  as  organs  .of  prehension  ;  in  man,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  lower  extremities  serve  exclusively  for  station,  (the 
act  of  standing)  and  for  locomotion,  while  the  superior  extremi- 
ties remain  free  to  act  as  the  organs  or  instruments  of  prehen- 
sion and  of  touch,  a  difference  in  itself  sufficient  to  render  them 
fit  to  discharge  their  function  with  a  degree  of  perfection  far  above 
any  thing  seen  in  the  monkey  tribes  and  other  mammalia.     The 
vertical  position,   which   under  every  circumstance,  is  so  very 
favourable  to  man,  has  been  considered  by  some  authors,  as  not 
being  natural  to  him,  and  as  being  solely  the  effect  of  education ; 
but  this  is  an  error.     Even  if  he  should  wish  to  do  so,  man  could 
not  habitually  walk  on  his  four  extremities;  of  all  the  mammalia 
the  lower  extremities  of  man  are  most  favourably  formed  for  sus- 
taining the  body,  and  every  thing,  in  his  whole  organization,  is 
disposed  for  the  vertical  position.     The  foot  is  very  large  and  so 
fashioned  as  to  rest  nearly  the  whole  of  its  lower  surface  upon 
the  ground ;  the  different  bones  of  which  it  is  formed  are  solidly 
united  one  to  the  other,  and  the  leg  rests  vertically  upon  it ;  the 
heel  projects  considerably  behind  this  articulation  ;  the  knee  can 
be  completely  extended,  so  that  the  weight  of  the  body  is  trans- 
mitted  directly  from  the  femur  to  the  tibia;  the  muscles  which 
extend  the  foot  and  the  thigh  are  remarkable  for  their  volume 
and  strength  ;  the  pelvis  is  much  larger  than  in  other  animals, 
which  by  separating  the  legs  and  feet  from  each  other,  increases 
the    extent  of  the  base  of  support ;  finally,  the  head  is  nearly 
balanced  on  the  trunk,  because  its  articulation  is  placed  beneath 
the  centre  of  its  mass,  and  the  eyes  are  directed  forward,  precisely 
in  the  direction  to  be  most  useful  to  him. 

6.  The  horizontal  position,  on  the  contrary,  would  be  extremely 
inconvenient  for  man,  for  then  his  (hind)  feet,  short  and  almost 
inflexible,  and  his  very  short  thigh,  would  bring  his  knee  against 
the  earth,  while  his  anterior  (superior)  extremities  would  be  too 
flexible  and  too  widely  separated  to  afford  him  a  solid  support ; 

5.  What  is  the  position  of  man  ?     Could  man  sustain  with  ease,  for  any 
considerable  Itnjjth  of  time,  any  other  than  the  vertical  position?    Why  can 
he  not  £0  on  all  fours? 

6.  Why  would  the  horizontal  position  be  inconvenient  for  man? 


30 NATURAL  HISTORY  OF  MAN. 

the  position  of  the  head,  its  weight,  and  the  absence  of  the  cer- 
vical ligament,  which  in  quadrupeds  serves  to  sustain  this  part  of 
the  body,  would  not  permit  him  to  keep  it  elevated,  and  his  eyes 
being  directed  downwards  to  the  ground,  he  would  not  be  able  to 
see  before  him.  But  this  position  would  not  be  one  of  restraint 
only,  it  would  be  impossible  to  maintain  it  for  any  length  of  time, 
because  the  arteries  which  go  to  the  brain,  are  not  sub-divided  in 
man,  as  they  are  in  many  quadrupeds  ;  and  their  size  being  very 
considerable,  the  blood  would  be  carried  to  this  delicate  organ 
with  so  much  force  that  apoplexy  would  frequently  result. 

7.  Man  is  the  only  one  of  the  mammalia  that  is  truly  bimana  and 
biped — (two-handed,  and  two-footed.)     The  monkey  which  re- 
sembles him  iii  many  respects,  has  the  superior  extremities  dis- 
posed like  his,  but  the  foot  is  very  different ;  it  is  strictly  a  true 
hand  fitted  for  seizing  and  climbing,  while  our  foot  can   in  no 
manner,  serve  as  an  organ  of  prehension,  because  the  toes  have 
but  little  flexibility,  and  the  great  toe,  (answering  to  the  thumb,)  is 
larger  than  the  other  toes  (which  correspond  to  the  fingers  of  the 
hand,)  and  being  placed  upon  the  same  line,  is  not  opposable  to 
them. 

8.  4th.   The  perfection  of  his  vocal  apparatus.     He  is  the  only 
animal  of  this  class  that  can  articulate  sounds,  and  it  is  to  this 
faculty  that  he  is  indebted  for  language. 

9.  But  man  who  is  so  much  favoured  in  regard  to  his  intelligence 
and  skill,  has  not  the  advantage  as  regards  strength.     His  swift- 
ness in  the  race  is  much  less  than  that  of  animals  of  his  stature, 
and  Nature  has  not  endowed  him  with  arms  either  for  defence  or 
attack.     The  greater   part  of  his  body  is  unprotected,  even  by 
hair,  from  the  inclemencies  of  the  weather,  and  he  is  of  all  animals, 
the  longest  in  acquiring  the  strength  necessary  to  enable  him  to 
supply  his  own  wants. 

10.  If  God  had  not  given  to  man  a  social  instinct,  a  love  for 
society,  and  the  powerful  intelligence  which  distinguishes  him, 
he  would  have  been  one  of  the  most  miserable  beings  that  in- 
habit the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  probably  his  race  would  have  soon 
disappeared ;    but  this   instinctive  impulse,  joined  to  a  sense  of 
his  weakness,  has  brought  him  to  living  in  society  with  his  fellow- 
men,  and  now,  his  intellectual  faculties  have  enabled  him  to  derive 
something  from  all  that  surrounds  him,  towards  insuring  his  sub- 
sistence and  happiness. 

7.  In  what  particulars  do  monkeys  differ  from  man? 

8.  To  what  faculty  is  man  indebted  for  language  ? 

9.  In  what  respect  is  man  superior  to  other  animals  ?     In  what  is  he  in- 
ferior to  them  ? 

10.  What  circumstances  render  man  able  to  secure  his  subsistence  and 
happiness  1  £ 


VARIETIES  OF  THE  HUMAN  SPECIES. 31 

The  detail  into  which  we  entered,  relative  to  the  structure 
of  man,  in  treating  on  Physiology  and  Anatomy,  in  the  first  of 
this  series,  (See  "  Physiology  and  Animal  Mechanism,")  renders  it 
unnecessary  to  speak  of  his  organization  in  this  place. 

THE  HUMAN  RACE. 

1 1 .  In  the  human  race,  as  we  have  said,  there  is  but  a  single 
species  ;  nevertheless,  all  men  are  far  from  being  alike,  and  the 
principal  differences  which  they  present,  are  transmitted,  uninter- 
ruptedly, from  generation  to  generation ;  so  that  we  must  admit, 
into  this  single  species,  several  very  distinctly  marked  varieties. 

12.  The  people  who  inhabit  the  old  world  appear  to  belong  to 
three  principal  varieties,  designated  by  naturalists  under  the  names 
of  Caucasian  Race,  Mongolian  Race,  and  Ethiopian  Race. 

13.  The  CAUCASIAN  VARIETY,  (Plate  \,fiy.  !•)  is  distinguished 
by  the  beauty  of  the  oval  formed  by  the  head,  by  the  develope- 
ment  of  the  forehead,  the  horizontal  position  of  the  eyes,  the 
slight  projection  of  the  cheek  bones  and  jaws,  the  smooth  hair, 
and  white,  or  at.  least,  whitish  color  of  the  skin ;  it  is  also  remark- 
able  for  its  perfectibility,  for  it  has  given  origin  to  all  the  most 
civilized   people  on  earth.     It  occupies  all  Europe,  the  western 
part  of  Asia,  and  the  most  northern  part  of  Africa  ;  but  it  is  be-    • 
lieved  to  have  come  first  from  the  mountains  of  Caucasia,  situate 
between  the  Caspian  and  Black  Seas,  and  for  this  reason  it  has 
been  called  Caucasian. 

14.  The  MONGOLIAN  VARIETY,  (Plate  1,  fig.  2.)  differs  in  many 
respects  from  the  Caucasian  variety  ;  here  the  face  is  flattened ; 
the  forehead  low,  retreating  and  square  ;  the  cheek  bones  project- 
ing ;  the  eyes  narrow  and  oblique  ;  the  chin  slightly  projecting ; 
the  beard  thin,  the  hair  straight  and  black,  and  the  skin  of  an 
olive  color.     The  languages  proper  to  the  Mongolian  races  pos- 
sess characteristics  common  to  them  all,  which  clearly  separate 
them  from  people  of  Caucasian  origin :   the  words  of  which  the 
Mongolian  languages  are  composed  are  all  monosyllabic. 

15.  This  variety  of  the  human  race  is  found  to  the  ea^t  of  those 
regions  which  are  inhabited  by  the  Caucasian  race?;  we  first 

11.  Are  all  the  races  of  men  like  e  ch  other? 

12.  Into  what  varieties  have  the  people  of  the  old  world  been  distinguished  ? 

13.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Caucasian  variety  ?    How    is   the 
term  Caucasian  derived  ? 

14.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Mongolian  variety  ?     What  is  the 
character  of  the  languages  of  the  Mongolian  race  ? 

15.  In  what  parts  of  the  world  is  the  Mongolian    variety  found  ?     What 
remarkable  nation  is  composed  of  the  Mongolian  variety  ?     To  what  variety 
of  the  human  race  do  the  inhabitants  of  Japan,  Corea,  and  the  Caroline 
Islands  belong  ? 


32 VARIETIES  OF  THE  HUMAN  SPECIES. 

meet  them  in  the  great  desert  of  central  Asia,  where  are  found 
the  Calmuck  and  other  Mongolian  tribes  that  are  still  wanderers : 
almost  all  the  tribes  of  the  eastern  part  of  Siberia  belong  to  them ; 
but  the  most  remarkable  nation  composed  of  men  of  this  race,  is 
the  Chinese,  whose  vast  empire  claims  to  have  been  civilized  be- 
fore the  rest  of  the  world.  Corea,  Japan,  the  Marian  Isles,  the 
Caroline  Isles,  and  all  other  lands  which  extend  to  the  north  of 
the  equator,  from  the  first  named  of  these  archipelagos  to  about 
the  180th  degree  of  east  longitude,  are  also  peopled  by  the  Mon- 
golian races.  Also,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Aleutian  Isles,  and 
of  the  neighbouring  part  of  the  west  coast  of  America,  belong 
to  this  great  division  of  the  human  species. 

16.  The  Malays,  who  occupy  India  beyond  the  Ganges,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  Asiatic  archipelago,  constitute,  according  to  some 
naturalists,  a  variety  distinct  from  the  Mongolian  and  Caucasian  ; 
but  most  authors  regard  them  as  the  offspring  of  the  two  races. 

17.  Finally,  the  Mongolian  races  appear  to  be  spread  through 
the  northern  region  of  the  two  hemispheres,  for  all  the  mixed  or 
mongrel  tribes  met  with  from  North  Cape,  in  Europe,  to  Greenland, 
who  are  known  under  the  name  of  Laplanders,  Samoides,  Esqui- 
maux, &c.,  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  them. 

18.  A  third,  and  very  distinct  branch  of  the  human  race,  is 
the  ETHIOPIAN,  or  NEGRO  VARIETY,  (I'latc  1,/fy.  3.)  characterised 
by  the  compressed  skull,  the  flattened  nose,  the  projecting  muzzle, 
thick  lips,  crisped  hair,  and  skin  more  or  less  black.     It  is  confined 
to  the   south   of  mount  Atlas,  and  appears  to  be  composed  of 
several  very  distinct  races  or  tribes,  such  as  the  Mozambique,  the 
Bocbisman  and  Hottentot. 

19.  The  primitive  population  of  Australia,  and  of  the  numer- 
ous archipelagos  of  Oceanic'a  or  Polynesia,  is  also  a  black  race, 
which  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  negroes  of  Mozam- 
bique, but  their  hair,  although  coarse,  is  straight ;  of  the  barba- 
rous and  miserable  people  to  whom  the  name  of  Alforians,  or 
Alfores  has  been  given,  we- have  very  little  knowledge. 

20.  Finally,  the  aborigines  of  America  are  regarded  by  some 
naturalists,  as  belonging  to  neither  of  the  three  varieties  of  the 

1C.  What  parts  of  the  world  are  inhabited  by  Malays  ?     To  what  variety 
do  they  belong  ? 

17.  To  what  variety  do  the  La  panders,  Samoides  and  Esquimaux  belong1  ? 

18.  How  is  the  Ethiopian  variety  characterised  ?    What  are  the  principal 
tribes  of  this  variety  ? 

19.  In  what  respect  do  the  primitive  inhabitants  of  Australia  and  Polynesia 
differ  from  the  Ethiopian  variety  ?     What  is  known  of  the  Alforians  ? 

20.  Do  the  inhabitants  of  America  form  a  distinct  variety  or  race  of  the 
human  family?     What  are  the  characteristics  of  Americans  ? 


THE  AMERICAN  RACE. 33 

human  race  inhabiting  the  old  world.  Some  bear  a  strong  re- 
semblance to  the  Mongolian  races  of  Asia ;  others  on  the  con- 
trary, approach  somewhat  to  the  European  form. 

'« The  American  Race,"  according  to  Professor  Morton, — the 
highest  authority  on  this  subject, — "  is  marked  by  a  brown  com- 
plexion, long,  black,  lank  hair,  and  deficient  beard.  The  eyes 
are  black  arid  deep  set,  the  brow  low,  the  cheek  bones  high,  the 
nose  large  and  aquiline,  the  mouth  large,  and  the  lips  tumid  and 
compressed.  The  skull  is  small,  wide  between  the  parietal  pro- 
tuberances, prominent  at  the  vertex,  and  flat  on  the  occiput.  In 
their  mental  character,  the  Americans  are  averse  to  cultivation, 
and  slow  in  acquiring  knowledge  ;  restless,  revengeful,  and  fond 
of  war,  and  wholly  destitute  of  maritime  adventure." — CRANIA 
AMERICANA. 

The  American  Race  is  divided  into  two  families  : 

The  American  Family.       |      The  Toltecan  Family. 
(£/~  For  the  type  of  this  race,  see  frontispiece. 


LESSON    IV. 

ORDER  OF  QUADRUMANA. — Zoological  characters. — Peculiarities 
of  their  organization  compared  to  their  habits. — Division  into 
three  families. —  Their  Zoological  characters. 

FAMILY  OP  MONKEYS. —  Dwisioh  into  monkeys  of  the  old  and  new 
continent. — Description  and  habits  of  the  principal  genera — 
(Ourangs,  Gibbons,  Gucnons,  Magots,  Cynocephalus, —  Howl- 
ing Monkey.} 

FAMILY  OP  OUISTITIS.  —  Manners. 

FAMILY  OP  MAKIS, — Description,  and  Habits. 


ORDER     OP     THE     QUAPRUMANA. 

1.  The  order  of  quadrumana  is  composed  of  a  considerable 
number  of  animals  which  resemble  man  more  than  any  other  of 
the  mammalia,   and   which  are  chiefly   characterised  by  their 
having  both  the  thoracic  and  abdominal  extremities  terminated 
by  hands.  (Plate  I,  fig.  4,  to  12.) 

2.  Like  the  Bimana,  the  quadrumana  have  incisor,  canine  and 
molar  teeth.     Their  eyes  are  directed  forward,  or  at  least,  ob- 

1.  What  chiefly  characterises  animals  of  the  order  Quadrumana?    What 
is  the  meaning  of  the  term  Quadrumana? 

2.  What  kinds  of  teeth  have  the  Quadrumana  ?     In  what  particulars  do 
the  Quadrumana  resemble  man  ? 


34 


MONKEY  FAMILY. 


liquely  and  their  mamma  are  situated  on  the  chest.  We  may 
also  add  that  their  brain  resembles  that  of  man  very  much,  and 
each  hemisphere  consists  of  three  lobes,  the  posterior  of  which 
covers  the  cerebellum;  and  their  abdominal  viscera  scarcely 
differ  from  ours. 

3.  The  order  of  Quadrumana  is  divided  into  three  families : 
Monkeys,  Ouistitis,  and  Makis.  The  following  table  exhibits  a 
synopsis  of  the  most  prominent  distinctive  characters  of  these 
three  groups. 

Families. 


Nails 
sed,     arched 


and 


QUADRUMANA.  <| 


Ouistitis. 


Having  four  incisor  teeth 

in    each   jaw,  placed    very  ^  pointed  like  claws, 
nearly  in  a  vertical  position,     on  all  the  fingers, 
except   the    poste- 
rior    thumbs,     or 
t great  toes. 

Having  the  incisor  teeth  more  numerous  than 
the  Monkey  or  Ouistitis,  or  at  least  differently 
disposed.     Nails  flat,  except  that  of  the  first,  or  }•  Makis. 
j  of  the   two  first   fingers   (or   toes)    posteriorly,  j 
L  which  is  pointed  and  raised.  J 

MONKEY  FAMILY.-SIMIA. 

4.  Monkeys  are  animals  of  middle  or  small  stature,  whose 
heads  are  almost  always  rounded,  the  muzzle  moderately  elon- 
gated, the  neck  short,  the  body  light,  and  extremities  slim, 
(Plate  1,  fig.  4.  to  9.)  They  are  covered  with  long  silky  hair; 
nevertheless,  their  resemblance  to  man  is  very  considerable,  and 
there  are  some,  which  when  very  young,  have  the  facial  angle 
not  much  more  oblique  than  that  of  negroes ;  but  as  they  advance 
in  age  the  muzzle  always  becomes  much  more  projecting,  and 
with  some  monkeys,  this  part  of  the  face  is  so  much  developed 
as  to  resemble  that  of  the  dog.  The  actions  and  behaviour  of 
these  animals  bear  a  strong  analogy  to  our  own.  Many  of 
them  assume  with  ease  an  almost  vertical  position,  particularly 
when  aided  by  a  stick,  as  we  use  a  cane,  and  some  walk  in  this 
way,  but  never  so  firmly  as  man  ;  on  the  contrary  they  are  admi- 
rably organized  for  climbing  from  branch  to  branch.  The  length 
and  flexibility  of  their  limbs,  having  hands  on  all  four  extremities, 

3.  Into  how  many  families  is  the  order  Quadrumana  divided  ?     What  are 
they?     What  number  of  incisor  teeth  have  monkeys?     How  many  incisors 
have  the  Ouistitis  ?    What  kind  of  nails  have  monkeys  ?     What  sort  of  nails 
have  Ouistitis  ?     How  are  the  nails  characterised  ? 

4.  What  are  monkeys?     How  are  they  characterised? 

• 


MONKEY   FAMILY. 


35 


and  the  great  strength  of  their  muscular  system,  permit  them  to 
display  an  astonishing  agility,  and  nature  has  moreover,  supplied 
many  of  these  animals  with  a  long  prehensile  tail,  which  serves 
them  as  a  fifth  hand,  in  suspending  themselves  from  branches, 
to  balance  themselves  in  the  air,  and  make  their  spring  when  they 
wish  to  leap  from  one  tree  to  another. 

5.  Monkeys  are  essentially  frugivorous,  and  their  teeth  bear  a 
great  similitude  to  those  of  man.     Their  molar  teeth  are  tuber- 
culated  like  ours,  but  their  canine  are  much  longer. 

6.  Monkeys  belong  to  warm  countries ;  a  single  species  lives 
wild  in  Europe,  on  the  rock  of  Gibraltar,  and  what  is  very  re- 
markable, all  those  of  the  new  world  possess  characters   which 
distinguish  them  from  those  of  the  old  continent. 

7.  These  zoological,  characteristics,  so  strictly  in  harmony  with 
the  geographical  distribution  of  monkeys,  have  caused  them  to  be 
divided  into  two  tribes:  monkeys  of  the  old  world,  and  monkeys 
of  America.     They  may  be  distinguished  by  the  following  char- 
acteristics : 

Molar  teeth  ;  five  on  each  side,  in  each  jaw, 

(as  in  man.) 

Almost  always  possess  ischiatic  callosities, 
OF  THE  species  of  fleshy  cushions  placed  beneath 

OLD   CONTINENT.         the  pelvis. 

Tail  never  prehensile. 

Nares  open  beneath  the  nose,  and  separated 

by  a  narrow  partition, 

Che.ks  often  hollowed  into  pouches  called 

SIMIA.  cheek  pouches,  which  communicate  with 

the  mouth,  and  serve  as  reservoirs  of  food 
MONKEYS.  I      obtained  by  the  animal. 

Molar  teeth ;  six  on  each  side,  and  in  each 

jaw. 

Ischialic  callosities  never  present. 
OF  THE          ^  Tail,  often  prehensile. 

NEW  CONTINENT.      Nares,  almost  always  separated   by  a  broad 
partition,    and   open  at  the  sides  of  the 


5.  On  what  substances  do  monkeys  feed  ?  What  is  the  character  of  their 
molar  teeth  ? 

6.  In  what  pirts  of  the  word  are  monkeys  found?     Are  the  monkeys  of 
the  old  and  new  world  alike  ? 

7.  How  are  monkeys  divided  ?     How. are  monkeys  of  the  old  world  dis- 
tinguished from  those  of  the  new  ?     What  is  the  character  of  the  tail  ?    How 
do  the  nares  open  ?     How  do  the  nares  of  the  monkeys  of  the  new  conti 
nent  open  ? 

4 


36  MONKEY  FAMILY. 


MONKEYS  OF  THE  OLD  CONTINENT. 

8.  These  animals  are  quite  numerous,  and,  in  their  organiza- 
tion, seem  to  form  a  series,  which  leads  by  degrees  from  man  to 
common  quadrupeds :  the  position  of  their  bodies,  almost  verti- 
cal in  some,  becomes  in  others  entirely  horizontal,  their  muzzle  is 
elongated,  and  we  remark  at  the  same  time,  their  passions  be- 
come, proportionably,  more  and  more  violent  and  brutal. 

9.  The  principal  genera,  composing  the  tribe  of  monkeys  of 
the  old  world,  may  be  recognised  by  the  following  characters. 


MONKEYS    OF   THE    OLD    CONTINENT. 

Et  o  OB   p  a.  cr^r  g-  o>  oq  o  P  jr.  o 


:3 


111 

t 


1 


!f    MM  t 


§-"82-          5'^^i^      r<; 

2    S  1  B-gs'w'O         -O^ 


Iir«  P 


3 

*s                     > 
S                        O 

s        a 

P                               CO 

JOPJTHECUS. 

GUENONS. 

GIBBONS. 

OURANGS. 

(Genera.) 

8.  What  is  remarked  of  monkeys  of  the  old  continent  ? 

9.  What  are  the  principal  genera  of  the  monkeys  of  the   old   continent? 
What  are  ihe  chief  distinguishing  characters  of  the  Ourangs  ?  How  do  the 
Gibbons  differ  from  the  Ourangs  ?     What  are  the  distinguishing  characters 
of  the  Guenons  ?     How  does  the  Semnopithecus  differ  from  them  ?     Whai 
characterises  the  Macacus  ?    How  do  you  distinguish  the  Cynocephalus  from 
other  monkeys  ? 


MONKEY   FAMILY.  37 


10.  The  OuRANcsare  the  only  monkeys  of  the  old  continent  des- 
titute of  ischiatic  callosities.  The  most  remarkable  species  of  this 
genus  the  OURANG-OUTANG,  which  inhabits  the  interior  of  Borneo, 
and  other  large  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  when  young1,  is  said, 
to  resemble  man  more  than  any  other  animal.  (Plate  I- Jig.  4.) 

11.  The  body  is  covered  with  coarse  reddish  hair,  and  the  face 
is  smooth  and  bluish ;  he  sometimes  attains  the  height  of  seven 
feet,  and  possesses  great  strength  and  agility;  he  dwells   in  the 
wildest  forests  and  habitually  keeps  himself  upon  the  trees;  he 
climbs  with  the  greatest  rapidity  and   springs  from  branch  to 
branch  with  as  much  facility  and  skill  as  the  little  monkeys  of 
America,  which  are  often  seen  in  our  streets.     On  the  ground, 
on  the  contrary,  Ourang  Outangs  walk  with  difficulty,  and  are  fre- 
quently obliged  to  place  their  hands  upon  the  earth  ;  we  see  them, 
using  their  long  arms  to  raise  themselves  up,  and  throw  them- 
selves forward,  very  much  as  a  man  would  use  a  pair  of  crutches. 
It  has  been  ascertained  that  these  animals  build  themselves  huts 
in  lofty  trees.     It  is  very  difficult  to  capture  them  when  they  have 
attained  adult  age,  as  they  defend  themselves  in  the  most  cou- 
rageous manner ;  but  when  young  they  are  easily  taken  ;  they 
then  show  a  good  deal  of  intelligence,  attach  themselves  to  those 
who  have  care  of  them,  and  readily  learn  to  imitate  a  great  many 
of  our  actions. 

12.  Another  species  of  the  genus  Ourang,  is  the  Chimpanzee, 
(Plate  \,fig.  5.)  which  inhabits  the  interior  of  Africa,  and  is  also 
named  Jocko.     Its  arms  are  not  so  long  as  those  of  the  Ourang- 
Outang,  and  its  forehead  is   very  retreating ;  its  stature  is  less 
than  that  of  man.     It  lives  in  troops. 

13.  The  GIBBONS  resemble  the  Ourang-Outangs  in  the  length 
of  their  arms,  but  their  forehead  is  very  receding.  They  live  in  the 
most  distant  parts  of  the  continent,  and  archipelago  of  India,  and 
like  the  Ourangs  inhabit  the  densest  forests.     They  are  not  very 
susceptible  of  education,  and  domesticating  them  seems  to  make 
them  lose  their  faculties 

14.  The  Siamang  differs  from  the  other  Gibbons  in  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  first  phalanges  of  the  second  and  third  toes  are 

10.  Have  the  Ourangs  ischiatic  callosities  or  not?  When  do  Ourangs  most 
resemble  man?     In  what  part  of  the  world  are  they  found? 

11.  What  is  the  size  of  the  Ourang?    Does  the  Ourang-Outang  walk  with 
ease  in  the  erect  position  ?     How  do  they  live  ? 

12.  How  is  the  Chimpanzee  distinguished  from  the  Ourang-Outang  ? 

13.  In  what  particulars  do  the  Gibbons  resemble  the  Ourang-Oulangs  ? 
In  what  part  of , the  world  are  they  found?     Are  they  readily  educated ? 

14.  How  does  the  Siamang  differ  from  other  Gibbons  ?  What  are  the  habits 
of  the  Siamang  ?    Is  the  Siamang  remarkable  for  the  acuteness  of  any  paj 
ticular  sense  ? 


38  MONKEY   FAMILY. 


united  to  each  other  by  a  membrane ;  it  merits  notice  from  the 
singularity  of  its  habits.  These  monkeys  live  in  numerous 
troops,  which  seem  to  be  under  the  direction  of  chiefs,  more 
active  and  more  robust  than  other  individuals  of  the  community ; 
during  the  day  they  preserve  silence,  concealed  in  the  foliage, 
but  at  sunrise  and  sunset,  they  raise  the  most  frightful  cries. 
When  on  the  ground,  they  can  scarcely  drag  themselves  along; 
and  they  climb  slowly  and  with  difficulty ;  but  they  possess  a 
vigilance  which  is  rarely  at  fault.  It  is  asserted  that  any  sound, 
not  understood  by  them,  which  is  heard  even  at  the  distance  of  a 
mile,  no  matter  how  slight  it  may  be,  is  sufficient,  to  put  them  to 
immediate  flight. 

15.  The  SEMNOPITHECUS  closely  resembles  the  Gibbon,  and  in- 
habits India.  One  of  these  monkeys,  called  the  Entellus,  (Plate 
l,Jry.  6.)  is  held  in  veneration  by  the  Brahmins. 

lo.  The  GUENONS,  commonly  known  under  the  name  of  long- 
tailed  monkeys,  inhabit  all  Africa.  They  acquire  a  middle  stature, 
and  in  leaping  from  tree  to  tree  display  great  agility,  but  they 
walk  very  little  and  with  difficulty. 

17.  The  MACACUS, — the  Macaque  resembles  ordinary  quad- 
rupeds in  form,  and  generally  has  a  short  tail.     It   inhabits   the 
southern  parts  of  Asia. 

18.  The  MAGOT  (Inuus  of  Cuvier)  differs  from  the  Macaque 
only   in  the  tail,  which   is  reduced  to  a  mere  tubercle.     This 
monkey  inhabits  Africa;  but  is  found  throughout  the  southern 
parts  of  Spain,  and  has  become  naturalized  on  the  least  accessi- 
ble parts  of  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar.     It  is  the  only  animal  of  the 
order  quadrumana  that  inhabits  Europe.     When  young,  it  is 
easily  taught  through  fear  of  chastisement,  to  perform  various 
tricks,  and  jugglers  avail  themselves  of  this  fact  to  excite  the  curi- 
osity of  the  public;  but  like  the  Macaque,  this  monkey  is  very 
capricious  and  deceitful,  and  when  old,  it  becomes  mischievous 
and  taciturn. 

19.  TheCvNOCEPHALUs,  (Plate  1.  Jig.  7.)  or  dog-head  monkey,  is 
the  most  brutal  and  fierce  animal  of  this  family,  and  next  after  the 
Ourang  and  Gibbon,  it  is  the  largest  and  strongest.     Its  extremi- 
ties are  short,  and  its  habitual  mode  of  progression  is  on  all  fours. 
In  leaping,  it  displays  great  agility,  and  habitually  frequents  the 
wildest  mountains  or  wooded  coasts.     It  feeds   on  fruits  and 
vegetables ;  and  like  the  Guenons,  the  dog-head    monkeys  aid 

15.  What  monkey  is  worshipped  by  the  Brahmins? 

16.  What  are  the  Guenons  commonly  called? 

17.  Describe  the  Macacus  ? 

18.  How  does  the  Magot  differ  from  the  Macacus  ?     Has  it  a  long  tail  ? 
In  what  parts  of  the  world  is  it  found  ? 

19.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Cynocephalus  ?  What  does  it  feed  on  ? 


MONKEY   FAMILY.  39 


each  other  in  pillaging  gardens  and  cultivated  fields.  Their 
strength  and  ferocity  render  them  dangerous,  even  to  man. 
They  nearly  all  inhabit  Africa. 

MONKEYS  OF  THE  NEW  CONTINENT. 

20.  The  monkeys  of  the  new  world  are  distinguished   from 
those  of  the  old,  by  the  characters  which  we  have  already  pointed 
out ;  but  their  habits  are  essentially  the  same.     They  inhabit  the 
dense  forests  of  this  vast  continent,  and  climb  the  highest  trees 
with  the  most  surprising  agility.     They  all  have  a  very  long  tail, 
which  sometimes  serves  them  as  a  balance-pole  in  maintaining 
their  equilibrium,  and  some  possess  the  power  of  wrapping  the 
tail  round  objects  and  seizing  them  with  so  much  strength  that 
the  animal  can,  in  this  manner,  suspend  itself  from  branches, 
as  it  would  do  with  a  fifth  hand.  (Plate  I, fig-  8,  and 9.)  Accord- 
ing to  the  difference  in  the  conformation  of  the  tail,  the  monkeys 
of  America  are  divided  into  two  groups,  namely ; 

21.  The  SAPAJOUS,  whose  tails  are  prehensile,  and  for  a  part 
of  their  length  without  hair,  or  naked  on  the  inferior  surface. 

22.  The  SAGOUINS,  or  SAKIS,  in  which  the  tail  is  not  prehen- 
sile, and  never  naked  on  the  inferior  surface. 

23.  The  SAPAJOUS  are  more  agile  than  the  Sakis,  and  almost 
always  live  upon  trees ;  this  group  is  divided  into  many  genera, 
one  of  which,  designated  by  the   name  of  SAJOU,  or  Sapajou, 
properly  so  called,  is  recognised  by  its  tail  being  entirely  covered 
with  hair ;  it  is  a  species  of  this  genus,  very  common  in  Guiana 
and  Brazil,  which  is  so  frequently  brought  to  Europe  and  this 
country,  to  amuse  the  public  by  its  tricks  and  agility. 

24.  Other  Sapajous  known  under  the  name  of  Alouattes,  or 
howling  monkeys,  (Plate  1,  fig.  9.)    are  equally  worthy  of  our 
attention  on  account  of  their  cries  and  the  form  of  their  muzzle; 
they  have  a  pyramidal  head,  and  an  oblique  visage,  the  lower 
jaw  is  extremely  large,  and  the  Os  hyoides  (hyoid  bone)  is  formed 
in  the  most  singular  manner ;  the  body  of  this  bone  is  very  large, 
and  consists  of  an  osseous  case  with  thin  and  elastic  parietes, 
which  contains  two  membranous  pouches    that    communicate 

20.  Do  the  monkeys  of  the  new  continent  differ  in  all  respects  from  those 
of  the  old  continent?     What  are   the   general   characters   of  monkeys   of 
America  ?     Upon  the  difference  in  the  conformation  of  what   part    are  the 
monkeys  of  America  divided  ? 

21.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  tails  of  the  Sapajous  ? 

22.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  tails  of  the  Sagouins  ? 

23.  Which  are  most  active,  the  Sapajous  or  Sakis  ?     What  are  the  char- 
acters of  the  Sajou  ? 

24.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the    Alouattes  ?     Why  are  they  called 
howling  monkeys  ? 

4* 


40  MONKEY  FAMILY. 


with  the  larynx.  The  air  finds  its  way  into  these  cavities,  and 
gives  to  the  hoarse  and  disagreeable  voice  of  these  animals,  a 
tone  which  has  rendered  them  celebrated,  and  obtained  for  them 
the  name  of  howling  monkeys.  Their  howling,  as  travellers  tell 
us,  may  be  heard  for  more  than  a  half  a  league  around,  and  has 
something  so  fearful  in  it,  that  it  may  be  mistaken  for  the  noise  oc- 
casioned by  the  sliding  away  of  mountains.  It  is  particularly  at 
the  rising  or  setting  of  the  sun,  or  the  approach  of  a  storm  that 
they  make  the  forest  echo  to  their  frightful  cries,  and  it  appears 
they  sometimes  have  recourse  to  this  howling  to  alarm  their  ene- 
mies. These  monkeys  are  very  common  in  the  great  forests  of 
Brazil. 

25.  The  ATELES,  (Plate.  I,  fig.  8.)  are  the  Sapajous  in  which 
the  thumbs  are  wanting  on  the  anterior  extremities. 

26.  Most  of  the  SAKIS  or  Sagouins  live  in  shrubberies,  and  are 
less  active  than  the  preceding. 

Some  species  never  quit  their  retreat  except  about  twilight, 
and  there  are  some  that  are  altogether  nocturnal  in  their  habits. 

FAMILY  OF  OUISTITIS. 

27.  This  little  group  which  is  nearly  related  to  the  family  of 
monkeys,  and  which  for  a  long  time  was  confounded  with  it,  is 
peculiar  to  the  new  world,  and  yet,  the  Ouistitis  differ  less  from 
the  monkeys  of  the  old  continent  than  from  those  of  America : 
in  fact,  like  these  last,  they  have  but  twenty  molar  teeth.     The 
Ouistitis  are  small,  agreeable  looking  animals,  wi^h  a  round  head, 
flat  face,  lateral  nostrils,  without  either  callosities  or  cheek-pouches, 
and  a  bushy  tail  which  is  not  prehensile.  (Plate  \,fig.  10.)  On  the 
anterior  extremities  their  thumbs  are  scarcely  opposable   to  the 
other  fingers ;  and  all  their  fingers,  except  the  thumb  of  the 
posterior  extremities,  are  armed  with  compressed  nails  which  are 
pointed  like  claws ;  by  the  aid  of  these  nails  they  climb  trees 
like  squirrels,  for,  the  conformation  of  their  hands  does  not  per- 
mit them  to  seize  hold  of  branches  like  monkeys,  to  which  the 
name  of  duadrumana  is  much  more  applicable.     They  live  upon 
trees  and  are  reputed  to  be  gay,  capricious,  irascible  and  always 
in  motion. 

FAMILY  OF  MAKIS. 

28.  The  animals  which  belong  to  this  family  have  the  four 
thumbs  well  developed  and  opposable  to  the  other  fingers ;  but, 

25.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Ateles  ? 

26.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Sakis  ? 

27.  What  peculiarities  characterise  the  Ouistitis  ?     Have  they  callosities? 
What  is  the  position  of  their  nostrils?  What  is  the  character  of  their  nails? 

28.  How  arc  the  Makis  distinguished  from  other  monkeys  ? 


ORDER  CARNARIA. 41 

generally  they  differ  from  the  monkeys  and  the  Ouistitis  in  their 
form,  which  more  resembles  that  of  the  carnaria,  and  in  the  dis- 
position or  number  of  their  teeth.  They  are  readily  distinguished 
by  the  presence  of  a  pointed  or  raised  nail  on  the  first  or  two 
first  toes,  or  fingers  of  the  posterior  extremities,  while  the  nails 
of  the  rest  of  the  fingers  are  flat.  (Plate  \.-fig.  12  ) 

29.  This  family  is  composed  of  several  genera  designated  under 
the  names  of  Maids  properly  so  called  (Lemur  of  Cuvier,)  Loris, 
Tarsius,  &c. 

30.  The  Makis  properly  so  called,  (  Plate  l,fiy.  II.)  exclusively 
inhabit  the  island  of  Madagascar,  where  they  seem  in  a  manner 
to  take  the  place  of  monkeys.      They  are  called,  on  account 
of  the  pointed  shape  of  their  heads,  fox- headed,   or   fox-nosed 
monkeys.     The  inhabitants  of  the  southern  parts  of  Madagascar 
tame  and  train  them  for  hunting,  as  we  do  the  dog. 


LESSON    V. 

ORDER  CARNARIA. — Zoological  characters. — Peculiarities  of  their 
organization. — Division  into  families. — Family  of  Cheirop- 
tera.— Zoological  characters. —  Tribe  of  Dais. — Peculiarities 
of  organization.. — Habits.—- Frugivorous  Bats,  (example,  the 
Rons»ctte}  —Insectivorous  Bats, (example,  Vespertilio,0reillard) 
—  Tribe,  of  Galeopitliecus. 

FAMILY  OP  INSECTIVORA. — Zoological  characters. — Organization 
and  habits  of  the  Hedge-hog. —  The  Shrew,  and  the  Mole. 


ORDER     CARNARIA. 


1.  This  great  division  of  the  class  of  mammalia  is  chiefly  com- 
posed of  predatory  animals.     Bears  and  other  mammals  which 
possess  nearly  the  same  organisation,  are  ranged  under  this  head. 

2.  The  characters  which  distinguish  the  Carnaria,  are,  being 
unguiculated  like  the  Bimana  and  Quadrumana,  having  the  mouth 
armed  with  three  kinds  of  teeth,  and  like  them,  being  born  in  the 
ordinary  way,  and  in  not  having  a  pouch  for  the  lodgement  of 
their  young,  and  not  having  the  thumb  opposable  to  the  other 
fingers  as  in  the  two  preceding  orders. 

29.  Does  the  family  of  Makis  contain  more  than  one  genus? 

30.  In   what  part  of  the  world  are  the  Makis,  properly  so  called,  found  f 
Can  tin  Makis  be  trained  for  any  purpose  ? 

1.  What  kind  of  animals  compose  the  order  Carnaria  ? 

2.  What  are  the  characters  which  distinguish  the  Carnaria  ? 


42  ORDER  CARNARIA. 


3.  From  the  mode  of  life  followed  by  most  of  these  animals, 
it  might  be  anticipated  that  their  intestinal  canal  would   be  less 
voluminous  and  shorter  than  it  is  in  those  mammiferous  animals 
which- are  nourished  by  vegetable  substances  exclusively.     The 
Carnaria,  to  seize  and  devour  their  prey,  which  generally  strug- 
gles against  them,  require  considerable    strength  in  their  jaws  ; 
therefore,  the  muscles  which  bring  them  together  are  very  volum- 
inous, giving  to  the  heads  of  these  animals  very  considerable  size. 
In  general,  these  organs  are  very  short,  and  the  manner  of  articu- 
lation of  their  lower  jaw  bone  with  the  cranium,  shows  that  their 
teeth  are  designed  either  to  cut  flesh  or  to  crush  insects,  but  not 
to  grind  herbs  or  roots :  the  articulation  is  transverse  in  its  direc- 
tion, and  is  as  compact  as  a  hinge,  so  as  to  prevent  lateral  motion, 
and  only  permits  the  mouth  to  open  and  shut,  like  a  pair  of  scissors. 

4.  These  animals  differ  very  much  from  each  other  in  their 
forms  and  in  their  mode  of  living.     They  are  divided  into  three 
great  families,  to  wit ;  the  Cheiroptera,  the  Insectivora  and  the 
Carnivora,  the  distinctive  characters  of  which  are  set  down  in  the 
following  table : 

(Families.) 

Having  a  species  of  wings,  formed  by   a  fold' 
of  skin,  which  commencing  from  the  sides  of  the 
neck,  extends  between  their  four  extremities,  and  ^Cheiroptera. 


their  fingers.     Molar    teeth,    either   flat   on  the 
crown,  or  armed  with  points. 


Order 

of 
CARNARIA          tir:^ _..*_: I  moiar  ieein,  armeu  wim  cum-     Insectivora. 

Carnivora. 


the  by?*58    °   1  Molar  teeth,' trenchant  or  cut- 


FAMILY  OF  CHEIROPTERA. 

5.  Most  of  the  Cheiroptera  are  organized  for  flying  rather  than 
walking;  indeed,  in  these  mammiferous  animals,  and  even  in 
those  that  have  not  true  wings,  there  exists,  on  each  side  of  the 
body,  a  species  of  great  sail  formed  by  a  fold  of  the  skin,  which 
extends  from  the  neck  to  the  hind-feet,  and  which  extended  and  set 

3.  In  what  respect  does  the  intestinal  canal  of  the  Carnaria  differ  from 
the  intestinal  canal  of  animals  that  live  exclusively  on  vegetables  ?  Why 
are  the  jaws  and  teeth  of  the  Carnariu  very  strong  ?  What  is  the  charac- 
ter of  the  articulation  of  the  jaw  ? 

4.  Do  animals  which  belong  to  the  order  Carnaria  differ  much  from  each 
other  ?     Into  what  f  unilies  is  the  orter  Carnaria  divided  ?     What  are   the 
peculiarities  of  the  Cheiroptera?     What  is  the  character  of  their  molar 
teeth  ? 

What  are  the  characters  of  the  Insectivora?  What  is  the  character  of 
their  molar  teeth  ? 

What  is  the  character  of  the  molar  teeth  of  the  Carnivora? 

5.  For  what  kind  of  progression   is  the  organization  of  the  Cheiroptera 
best  adapted  ?     Do  all  the  Cheiroptera  possess  wings  7 


TRIBE  OF  BATS.  43 


in  motion  by  the  limbs  of  the  animal,  performs  the  office  of  a  para- 
chute, by  the  help  of  \vhich  he  is  enabled  to  sustain  himself  in  the 
air,  when  he  springs  from  an  elevated  point  (Plate  2,/fy.  l,and  7.) 

6.  All  these  animals  are  not  equally  well  organized  for  flight, 
and  on  this  account,  they  may  be  divided  into  tribes,  as  follows : 

(Tribes.,— 

/"      Having    wings,   (formed    by    a    mem-^ 
I   brane    which  is  sustained  by  excessively  ^  Bat. 

Family        |  long  fingers.)  J 

of  •{       Having  parachutes,    (formed   by   a  fold  ~\ 

CHEIROPTERA,    I   of  skin  on  the  sides  which  extends  between  I   ~  7      .  , 

the   limbs,   but  a  very  little  amongst  the  (  '     *«******• 
[jingers,  (toes)  which  are  short,  J 

Tribe  of  Bats. 

7.  These  singular  animals,   (Plate  2,  fig.  1,  and  2.)  seem  at 
first  sight,  to  partake  as  much  of  the  bird  as  of  the  mammiferous 
animal,  for,  like  the  first,  they  are  provided  with  strong  wings, 
and  are  organised  for  flying  in  the  air,  rather  than   walking  on 
the  ground ;  but  if  we  examine  the  structure  of  their  body  with 
more  attention,  we  perceive  that,  in  reality,  it  differs  only  in   a 
very  slight  degree  from  that  of  the  ordinary  mammalia,  and  these 
anomalies  chiefly  depend  upon  the  extreme  elongation  of  all  parts 
of  their  anterior  extremities.     The  wings  of  the  Bats  are  in  fact, 
nothing    else    than    these  extremities,  in  which  all  the  bones, 
those  of  the  fingers  particularly,  have  become  very  long,  and  serve 
to  sustain  a  prolongation  of  the  skin  of  the  flanks,  just  as  the 
whale-bones  of  an  umbrella  serve  to  sustain  the  silk  or  cotton 
of  which  it  is  made.     (Plate  2.  fig.  3. — a.  the  humerus, — b.  the 

fore  arm. — c.  the  thumb.  — d.  the  other  fingers.} 

8.  These  organs  are  not  designed  for  aerial  locomotion  alone, 
like  the  wings  of  birds :  when  folded,  they  also  serve  the  animal 
for  creeping  or  suspending  itself  from   some   projecting  body, 
(Plate  %,fig.  2  )  and,  for  this  purpose,  they  have  a  free  thumb, 
which  is  short  and  armed  with  a  hooked  nail,  like  that  of  most 
other    mammals,    while    the   rest  of  their  fingers,  which   are 
elongated  beyond  measure,  lose  their  last  phalanges  as  well  as 
the  nails,  and  are  enveloped  in  a   fold  of  skin,  which  extends 
from  the  sides  of  the  neck  to  the  posterior  extremities,  or  even  to 

6.  AreTHl  the  QMjiroptera  equally  well  organised  for  flight?     How  is  this 
family  divided?  -"IRniat  are  the  organic   characters  of  the  tribe   of  Bats  ? 
What  are  the  characters  of  the  tribe  Galeopithecus  ? 

7.  In  what  do  Bats  resemble  birds  ?  In  what  do  the  Bats  differ  from  other 
mammalia  ?     How  do  the  wings  of  Bats  differ  from  the  anterior  extremities 
of  the  mammalia? 

8.  Do  the  wings  of  Bats  serve  any  other  purpose  than  that  of  locomotion? 


44  TRIBE  OF  BATS. 


9.  The  posterior  or  abdominal  extremities  preserve  their  ordi- 
nary dimensions,  and  are  very  feeble :  the  hind  feet  are  free  and 
provided  with  rive  small  toes  of  equal  size,  terminated  with  hooked 
nails. 

10.  The  progression  or  walk   of  these  animals  is  extremely 
laborious,  and  is  effected  by  a  series  of  oblique  tumbles,   which 
fatigues  them  very  much  ;  they  never  have  recourse  to  this  mode 
of  progression,  except  when  they  are  forced.     When  they   wish, 
to  change  place,  they  effect  it  by  flying,  and  when  they  wish  to 
repose,  they  hook  themselves  to  some  projecting  body  from  which 
they  can  readily  make  their  spring. 

11.  Bats  belong  to  those  nocturnal  animals   that    avoid  the 
light;    during   the   day   they    sleep   concealed   in    caverns,   or 
some  other  obscure  place,  and  do  not  sally  forth  till  the  dusk  of 
the  evening.    In  winter  they  fall  into  a  lethargic  sleep,  which  often 
lasts  during  the  cold  season.     Their  eyes  are  exceedingly   small, 
but  their  ears  are  often  very   large,   and   the  species   of   tact 
which  they  exercise  through  the  medium  of  the  membranous  sur- 
face of  their  wings,  is  so  exquisite,  that  they  can  direct  their 
course  through  all  the  nooks  of  their  labyrinths,  even  after  their 
eyes  have  been  removed,  and  simply  by  the  different  impressions 
received  from  the  air. 

12.  The  diet  of  these  animals  is  various ;   all   do  not  feed  on 
animal  substances,  as  might  be  believed,  from  the  name  of  the 
class  to  which  they  belong.     Some  are  frugivorous,  and  others 
insectivorous. 

13.  The  FRDGIVOROUS  BATS,  have  molar  teeth  with  flat  crowns, 
(Plate  2,  fiy.  6.)  and  the  second  finger  of  the  fore- paw  armed 
with  a  nail,  like  the  thumb ;  as  yet  they  have  been  only  found  in 
India,  and  are  designated  under  the  generic  name  of  Roussettes. 
One  species  of  these  Bats,  (the  black  Roussette,)  has  wings  which, 
when  expanded,  extend  about  four  feet,  and,  to  protect  the  fruits 
from  its  devastations,  they  are  sometimes  obliged  to  cover  the 
trees  with  nets. 

1 4.  The  INSECTIVOROUS  BATS,  on  the  contrary,  have  the  crown  of 
the  molar  teeth  studded  with  conical  points   which  dovetail  into 
each  other.  (Plate  2.  fiy.  5.)     They  also  differ  from  the  preced- 

9.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  abdominal  extremities  of  Bats  ? 

10.  What  is  the  mode  of  progression  of  Bats?         Jj 

11.  Are  Bats   fond    of  light  ?     Are   their   eyes  large?     Have  they  very 
email  ears  ?     What  are  the  peculiarities  oi  the  surface  of  their  wings  ? 

12.  What  is  the  general  diet  of  Bats  ? 

13.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  frueivorous  Bats?  In  what  part  of  the 
world  are  these  Bats  found  ?     What  is  the  Roussette  ? 

14.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  molar  teeth  of  the  Insectivorous  Bats  ?  In 
what  respect  do  these  Bats  differ  from  others  7 


• 


INSECTIVOROUS  MAMMALS.  45 

ing  in  many  other  characteristic  particulars,  such  as  the  absence 
of  the  nail  on  the  index  finger.  Of  these  animals  a  great  many 
species  are  known. 

15.  Among  those  of  France,  we  may  cite;    1st  the   Vesperti^ 
lios,  or   ordinary  bats,  which  have  the  ears  separated,  and  of 
moderate  size,  and  the  nose  without  foliaceous,  or  leaf  appendix, 
(by  which  several  species  are  distinguished,  namely,  the  common 
bat,  the  Serotinus,  Pipistrellus,  fyc.) 

16.  2nd.  The  Long-eared  Bats,  (Oreil]ards)—VespcrtilioAuri~ 
tus  —  (Plate  2,  fig.  I,  and  2.)  whose  immense  ears  are  united 
together  upon  the  cranium,  (the  common  species  found  in  kitchens, 
houses,  &c.,  in  France.) 

!/•  3d.  The  Rhinolophus,  or  Horse-shoe  Bats,  which  may  be 
easily  distinguished  by  the  foliaceous  membranes  and  crests 
which  are  fixed  on  the  nose,  altogether  presenting  the  figure  of 
a  horse-shoe,  are  found  in  quarries. 

18.  In  South  America  there  is  a  Bat,  a  foot  long,  which  has 
the  habit  of  sucking  the  blood  of  other  animals    while  they  are 
asleep  ;  it  is  known  under  the  name  of  Vampire,  (Plate  2,  fig.  4.) 
and  placed  in  the  genus  Phyllostoma. 

.There  are  also  several  species  in  the  United  States. 

Tribe  of  Galeopithecus. 

19.  These  animals   are   mentioned  by  travellers,  under  the 
names  of  flying  monkeys,  and  flying  foxes,  flying  cats,  &c.     They 
inhabit  the  Indian   archipelago,  and  have  the  four  extremities 
formed  in  the  ordinary  manner,  but  united  by  a  prolongation  of 
skin,  which  extends  from  the  sides  of  the  neck  to  the  tail,  form- 
ing  a  great  parachute,  by  the  assistance  of  which  these  Cheirop- 
tera sustain  themselves  for  a  short  time  in  the  air,  when  they 
spring  from  one  branch  to  another.  (Plate  2.  fig.  7.)  They  live 
upon  trees  and  feed  upon  fruits. 

FAMILY  OF  INSECTIVORA. 

20.  This  family  is  composed  of  Carnaria,  whose  molar  teeth 
are  studded  with  conical  points  like  those  of  most  of  the 
Cheiroptera,  but  the  skin  of  their  flanks  is  not  prolonged  so  as 
to  form  either  wings  or  parachutes.  These  are  feeble  animals  of 

J5.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Vespertilios  ? 

J6.  How  are  the  long-eared  B.ts  characterised  ? 

IQ    wru     characters  distinguish  the  Rhinolophus? 

10    rr        ls  the  VamP"e  ?     Are  there  any  Bats  in  the  United  States  ? 

19.  How  are  animals  of  the  tribe  Galeopithecus  distinguished?     Have 

on  aw?      WmgS  ?     What  is  their  diet  ? 


on    w 

-JU.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  molar  teeth  of  the  insectivora  ?   Have 

?  J  Wi"gS?  ^^  "*  lhe  habUs  of  these  animals  ?  Wha' 


46 INSECTIVOROUS  MAMMALS. 

small  stature,  which,  during  the  day,  conceal  themselves  in  bur- 
rows or  holes,  from  which  they  sally  forth  only  at  night.  Many 
of  them  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  lethargy ;  as  their  name  in- 
dicates, they  live  chiefly  upon  insects. 

21.  The  principal  genera  composing  this  family  are  the  hedge- 
hogs, shrews,  and  moles  which  are  recognisable  by  the  following 
characters : 

_  _  (Genera.) 


Family 
of 


paws  of  the    ordinary 

±,an±rmedWith    I      Body  covered 
J  with  hair. 


Shrew*. 


Diggers,  (posterior  paws  of  a  peculiar  i 
form,  and  armed    with    very   long    nails,  [  ,,  , 

suitable  for    excavating,    or   digging  the  f 
Dearth.  J 

22.  The  HEDGEHOGS, — Erinaceus, — are  small  animals,  which, 
without  having  the  instinct  to  excavate  burrows  inaccessible  J;o 
their  enemies,  without  the  activity  necessary  to  escape  their  pur- 
suit, or  strength  to  contend  against  them,  are  nevertheless  capa- 
ble of  advantageously  protecting  themselves  and  punishing  any 
imprudent  attack  of  their  adversaries ;  but  to  give  them  this  power, 
nature  has  formed  for  them  no  new  organs,  but  has  merely  modi- 
fied the  hairs  with  which  their  backs  are  covered,  and  given  a 
greater  extent  to  certain  of  their  movements,  than  is  common  in 
other  quadrupeds.  By  flexing  the  head  and  paws  beneath  the 
belly,  the  Hedgehog  can  roll  itself  into  a  ball,  and  it  also  has  the 
faculty  of  drawing  the  skin  of  the  back  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
envelope  itself,  as  in  a  purse ;  now,  the  hairs  with  which  this  part 
of  the  tegumentary  envelope  is  furnished,  in  stead  of  being  flexible 
and  silky,  are  stout,  stiff,  and  sharp,  and,  when  the  skin  is  thus 
drawn,  the  spines  are  raised  up,  crossing  each  other  in  every  direc- 
tion, bristling  all  parts  of  the  animal's  surface  like  so  many  spines  or 
spears  ready  to  lacerate  and  tear  the  mouth  and  paws  of  the 
aggressor.  This  powerfully  defensive  armour  protects  the  Hedge- 
hogs from  the  attacks  of  most  of  the  Carnaria,  of  which,  with- 
out it,  they  would  become  the  ready  victims ;  foxes  however,  are 
not  deterred  by  these  obstacles,  and  are  often  successful  in 
seizing  this  dangerous  prey.  Their  mouth  is  armed  with  twenty 

21.  What  are  the  principal  genera  composing  this  family  ?    What  are  the 
organic  characters  of  the  genus  Hedgehog  ?      What    are  the  characters  of 
the  Shrews?     How  are  the  Moles  distinguished  ? 

22.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Hedgehog  ?  What  is  the  number  of 
their  teeth  ?     How  are  they  arranged  ?     What  are  their  habits  ? 


CARNIVOROUS  MAMMALS.  47 

teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  sixteen  in  the  lower  jaw.  They  live 
in  the  woods  and  keep  themselves  concealed  during  the  day 
amongst  the  roots  of  old  trees.  They  are  frequently  met  with  in 
France,  and  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  It  is  said  they  mouse 
like  a  cat. 

23.  Shrews — Sorex — (Plate  2,  fig   9.)  are  very  small  animals 
whose  appearance  reminds  us  of  the  mouse ;  their  body  is  covered 
with  hairs,  and  on  each  flank  there  is  found  a  small  strip  of  stiff 
bristles  between  which  there  exudes  an  odorous  humor.     They 
have  eighteen  teeth  in  the  upper,  and  twelve  in  the  lower  jaw. 
They  keep  themselves  in  holes  which  they  excavate  in  the  earth, 
and  feed   on   worms  and  insects.     The  common  Shrew,  (sorcx 
araneus)  has  been  accused,  but  very  wrongfully,  of  causing  a 
disease  in  horses  and  mules  by  its  bite.     Shrews  are  found  in 
Asia,  the  north  of  Europe,  &c. 

24.  The  MOLES,—  Taipei,— (Mate  2,  fig.  10.)  are  essentially 
subterraneous,  and  burrowing   animals;    their    body   is    squat, 
their  muzzle  elongated  and  terminated    by  a  moveable  snout, 
serving  to  penetrate  the  earth,   and   their  anterior  extremities, 
very  short,  but  extremely  strong  and  thick,  are  directed  out- 
wardly, and  terminate  by  enormous  nails,  suitable  for  digging. 
(IJlate  2,  fig.  11  )     By  the  assistance  of  these  organs,  moles  dig 
•with  great  rapidity  and  admirable  sWl,  long   galleries  in    the 
soil  in  the  midst  of  which  they  establish  their  abode.     The  small 
elevations   we  often  see  upon  the   surface  of  the    soil,   called 
mole  hills,  are  formed  by  the  riddance  which  these  animals  throw 
out  when  executing  their  subterranean  labors.    They  very  rarely 
leave  their  labyrinths,  and  feed  on  the  worms  and  larvae  of  in- 
sects found  there.     They  are  destined,  as  we  have  seen,  to  live 
in  total  darkness;  hence,  their  eyes  are  scarcely  perceptible,  and 
there  is  one  species  of  mole  which  is  entirely  blind.     They  have 
twenty-two  teeth  in  each  jaw.     The  common  mole  of  the  fields  of 
France,  which   is  of  a  beautiful  black,  is  found  in  all  the  fertile 
countries  of  Europe.     It  is  said,  they  do  not  exist  in  Ireland,  and 
are  rarely  met  with  in  Greece.      There  are  varieties  of  moles 
which  are  brown,  white,  ash-colored  and  spotted. 


23.  What  are  Shrews  ?  What  is  the  number  and  disposition  of  their  teeth? 
What  are  their  habits  ?     In  what  parts  of  the  world  are  they  found  ?     What 
is  their  food  ? 

24.  What  are  Moles?     What  are  the  peculiarities  of  their  organization? 
What  are  their  habits  ?     Have  moles  very  large  eyes  ?     Is  there  any  species 
of  Mole  that  is  blind  ?     What  is  the  number  and  arrangement  of  their  teeth  ? 
In  what  countries  are  they  found  ? 

5 


48  CARNIVOROUg^MAMMALS.  __  _ 

LESSON    VI. 

FAMILY  OP  CARNIVORA.—  Zoological  char  acters.—  Peculiarities  of 

organization.—  Division  into  three  tribes. 

TRIBE  OF  PLANTIGRADA.—  Zoological  characters.—  Organization 
and  Habits  of  Bears,  (Brown  Bear,  White  Bear,  Black 
Bear.}—  Badgers.—  Use  of  their  hair. 

TRIBE  OP  DIGITIGRADAS.—  Zoological  characters.—  Group  of  Ver- 

miform Digitigradas.—Hi*toty  of  the  Pole-cat,(  common  Pole- 

cat, Ferret,   Weasel,  Ermine.-)—  The  Martens,  (common  Mai- 

ten,  the  Beech  Marten,  Sable.}—  The  Otters,  (common  Otter, 

Sea  Otters-Genus   of  Dogs-History  and  Habits   of  some 

races,   (  Wolws,    Foxes.)-Genm  of    Civets   (Civet,  Common 

Wild-cat,    Mangomte  of  Egypt.)  -Genus  of  Hyenas.-  Genus  4 

of  Cats.—  Habits,  (Lion,  Tiger,  Leopard,  Couguar,Lynx,  Lat) 

TRIBE  OP  AMPHIBIA.—  Zoological  characters.—  Habits,  (beal,  the 

Morse.) 

CONTINUATION    OP    THE    ORDER   CARNARIA. 
FAMILY  OF  CARNIVORA. 

1  In  its  most  general  acceptation,  the  word  Carnivorous  belongs 
to  all  animals  that  feed  upon  flesh,  but   naturalists  give  to  this 
word,  a  more  limited  sigirfncation,  and  only  apply  it  to  this  family 
of  mammalia  of  the  order  Carnaria,  which  includes  Bats,  Hyenas, 
Martens,  Dogs,  &c.,  and  which  is  easily  distinguished  by  the  ex- 
istence of  teeth  for  tearing  and  cutting  flesh. 

2  In  these  animals,  which  generally  possess  great  strength,  a 
laws  are  stout,  and  each  one  is  armed  with  two  long,  stout,  se] 
rated  canine  teeth,  and  between  these  are  placed  six  incisors. 
Sometimes  the  molar  teeth  are  all  trenchant  ;  sometimes  they  a 
mingled,  some  having  blunt  tubercles,  but  they  never  have  com. 
cal  points  as  in  the  insectivora.  (Plate  2,  fig.   12.)     One  of  the 
great  molars  is  ordinarily  much  larger  and  more  penchant  than 
the  others,  and  bears  the  name  of  carnivorous  tooth,  (Mate  *,pg. 
12,  ca.)    behind  it  are  one  or  two,  almost  flat,  which  are  call< 
Ubtrculo**,  (Hate  2,  Jig.  12,  «.)  and  between  it  and  the  cu     ^ 

f  a  variable  number  of  /«/«?  molars.     The  form  and  disposition  of 
these  teeth  are  in  relation  to  the  more  or  less  carnivorous  Jiabits 
i.  How  i«  the  term  Carnivorous  applied?     By  what  means  can  we  re- 


whason  of  the  canine  teeth  in  the  Carnivora  ?     What  is 
the  number  of  their  incisor  teeth  ?     What   is  the  character  of  their   n 

''mat  is  the  carnivorous  tooth?     What  is   meant    by  tuberculous  tooth? 
What  is  the  form  and  disposition    of  these  teeth?     Can  we  judge   ot 
nature  of  the  diet  of  a  carnivorous  animal  by  the  teeth  ! 


PLANTIGRADE  MAMMALS. 49 

of  these  animals.  Those  that  live  most  exclusively  on  prey  have 
the  teeth  most  trenchant  and  the  jaws  shortest,  (which  increases 
their  power,)  while  those  that  feed  on  vegetable  substances  as 
well  as  on  flesh,  have  the  molars  for  the  most  part  tuberculous ;  by 
the  proportion  of  these  trenchant  and  tuberculous  teeth,  we  can 
judge  of  the  more  or  less  carnivorous  nature  of  their  diet. 

3.  Animals  of  this  family  generally  have  the  paws  armed  with 
hooked  nails,  suitable  for  holding  or  even  tearing  their  prey ;  it 
is  to  be  remarked  also,  that  they  are  almost  entirely  without 
clavicles ;  but  the  form  of  their  extremities  varies  a  great  deal, 
and  is  in  relation  to  the  difference  in  their  mode  of  progression, 
which  is  not  less  great.  According  to  these  characters  the  car- 
nivora  are  divided  into  the  three  following  tribes ;  Plantigrada, 
Digitigrada,  and  Jlmpkibia. 

(Tribes.) 

C     Feet  resting  their  whole  ~) 
Having  feet  I  length    on  the  earth,  the  i    p 
formed  specially  |  soles    of  which  are   free  ( 
for  progression.   J  from  hair.  J 

|       Feet  not  touching  the  1 
earth  except  by  the  ends  of 


CARNIVORA.  •{  the  toes ;  the  tarsus  being  j 

(^elevated  in  progression.      J 
Having  feet  in  the  form  of  paddles,  so  1 
short  and  so  enveloped   in  the  skin,  that  on  !  A 

land,  they  can  only    crawl  j    but  they   are  f         AMP 
excellent  swimmers.  J 

Tribe  of   Plantigrada. 

4.  It  is  the  zoological  character  of  this  tribe  to  have  five  toes 
on  all  the  feet,  and,  when  the  animal  walks  or  stands,   to  rest 
the  entire  sole  upon  the  earth,  (I'late  2,  fig    13,  and  14.)  which 
affords  him  a  broad  base  of  support,  and  greater  facility  of  stand- 
ing up  on  his  hind  feet. 

5.  All  the  motions  of  the  Plantigrades  are  dull.     Like  the  in- 
sectivora,  they  are  subterraneous  and  nocturnal  in  their  habits, 
and  in  cold  countries  pass  the  winter  in  a  state  of  lethargy,  or 
hibernation.     The   most  remarkable  genera  of  this  tribe  are  the 
Bears,  Rackoons,  Badgers,  and  Gluttons,  which  may  be  recog- 
nised by  the  following  characters : 

3.  What  kind  of  nails  have  the  carnivora  ?     What  kind  of  clavicles  have 
animals  of  this  family?     Is  the  form   of  their  extremities  the  same  in  all 
animals  of  this  class  ?     Flow  is  this  family  divided  ? 

KT(Answered  in  the  table.)  What  are  the  organic  characters  that  distin- 
guish animals  of  the  tribe  of  Plantigrada  ?  What  distinguishes  the  Digiti. 
grada  ?  What  is  the  form  of  the  extremities  of  the  Amphibia? 

4.  What  is  the  zoological  character  of  the  Plantigrada  't 

5.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Plantigrada  ?    What  are  the  most  remarka- 
ble genera  of  this  tribe  ? 


50  _  GENUS  OF  BEARS.  _  _ 

(Genera.) 

No  well  characterised  carnivorous  tooth  in  the  upper") 
jaw,  but  a  small  one  in  the  lower  ja\v  ;  three  larije  ! 
tuberculous  molars  on  each  side,  in  each  jaw  ;  tail  } 
very  short.  J 

Two  tuberculous   teeth,   pre-  ^ 
ceded   by  three    false     molars;  ±  Rackoons. 
muzzle  bhorl  ;  toes  not  palm 


ii 


rs;  ± 
ate.  J 


Very  large  in  the  "| 
upper,  and  small 


One  large  trenchant  j  in  the  lower  jaw;       „    , 

carnivorous  tooth    in  j  tail    short;    toes  j    1!aager*' 

each  jaw,  followed  by         One  tuber-  -{  united  by 


culous    tooth 


row  membrane.    J 


Small  in  both 

jaws  ;  tail  of  me-  \-    Gluttons. 
Indium  length.         J 

6.  BEARS  are  large  animals  with  stout  bodies,  thick  extremi- 
ties  and  short  tail;  their  gait  is  very  dull,  but  they  possess  pro- 
digious strength  and  considerable  intelligence.     The  formation  of 
their  extremities,  little  adapted  for  running,  enables  them  to  keep 
erect  on  their  hind  feet,  and  quickly  climb   trees,  which  they 
embrace  between  their  paws.     Some  of  them  are  also  very  good 
swimmers,  and  they  are  indebted  for  this  quality,  in  a  measure,  to 
the  quantity  of  fat  with  which  their  bodies  are  loaded.     Of  all 
the  carnivora,  their  organization  least  requires  them  to  feed  on 
flesh,  and  their  diet  is  least  carnivorous ;  in  fact,  the  structure  of 
their  teeth,  almost  entirely  tuberculous,  is  more  favourable  for 
grinding  roots  and  fruits  than  for  tearing  and  cutting  flesh  ;  hence, 
they  are  omnivorous.     They  eat  both  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances ;  but  the  last  constitute  their  habitual  food.     They  love 
roots  and  fruits,  but  have  a  most  decided  preference  for  honey, 
which  they  will  seek  in  the  midst  of  a  hive  without  much  regard- 
ing the  sting  of  the  bees,  being  protected  by  the  hard  skin  and 
thick  hair  with  which  they  are  covered. 

7.  Most  of  the  bears  live  in  great   forests,   but  there  is  one 
species  that  inhabits  the  coasts  and  ice  of  the  polar  seas.     The 

ftjT( Answered  in  the  table.)  What  is  the  arrangement  of  the  teeth  in  the 
genus  of  Bears?  What  is  the  number  of  their  molar  teeth  ?  Are  their  car- 
nivorous teeth  large? 

How  are  the  teeth  of  Rackoons  arranged  ?  Are  their  toes  united  by  a 
membrane  ?  How  many  carnivorous  teeth  have  they  in  each  jaw  ? 

How  are  the  teeth  of  Badgers  arranged  ?  Have  they  carnivorous  teeth  ? 
How  many  .tuberculous  teeth  have  they  ?  Have  they  long  tails  ?  Are  they 
palmate  ? 

In  what  respect  do  the  t-eth  of  Gluttons  differ  from  those  of  Badgers? 
Have  Gluttons  any  tail  ? 

6.  What  are  bears?  Are  they  swift  runners  ?  Do  they  swim  well  ?  Can 
they  climb?  What  do  they  feed  on?  What  are  they  particularly  fond  of? 
7.  What  are  the  habits  of  Bears  ?  How  do  they  pass  the  winter  ? 


GENUS  OF  BEARS.  51 


first  establish  their  abodes  in  caverns  or  in  dens,  which  they  dig 
with  their  strong  and  hooked  nails ;  in  winter  they  sleep  in  their 
retreats,  and  when  the  cold  is  severe,  pass  the  whole  of  this 
season  in  a  profound  lethargy.  During  the  period  of  hibernation 
they  take  no  nourishment,  but  seem  to  depend  upon  the  fat,  with 
which  they  abound  in  the  autumn,  for  their  existence ;  so  that 
when  they  leave  their  retreats  they  are  extremely  thin. 

Prudence  is  the  chief  feature  in  the  character  of  the  bear. 
Whenever  he  can,  he  retires  from  what  he  is  unacquainted  with, 
and  when  forced  to  approach  it,  he  does  so  very  slowly,  and  with 
great  circumspection;  yet  he  does  not  want  courage,  and  does 
not  seem  to  be  susceptible  of  fear.  He  is  never  known  to  run; 
he  opposes  strength  to  strength,  and  when  his  life  is  threatened, 
or  his  young  in  danger,  his  fury  and  his  efforts  become  terrible. 

The  fur  of  these  animals  is  thick  and  composed  of  long  shining 
hair ;  it  is  much  sought,  and  forms  an  important  article  of  com- 
merce. In  the  winter  and  in  the  coldest  countries,  it  is  most 
beautiful ;  therefore,  it  is  at  this  season  they  are  most  actively 
hunted.  Most  of  the  bear  skins  used  are  from  the  north  of  Russia 
and  America.  Since  they  have  been  employed-  for  making  or 
adorning  military  caps,  three  or  four  thousand  are  annually  con- 
sumed in  France. 

Bears  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  in  every  latitude, 
except  South  Africa  and  Australia.  There  are  several  species, 
the  chief  of  which  are  : 

8.  1st.  The  Brown  Bear — Ursus  Arctos;  it  is  this  species  that 
the  mountebanks  in  France  train  for  their  exhibitions.     This 
animal  may  attain  a  length  of  four  or  five  feet ;  his  height,  when 
standing  on  all  his  feet,  does  not  exceed  three  feet :  his  hair,  thick 
and  tufted,  except  on  the  muzzle  and  paws  where  it  is  black,  is 
chestnut  brown  on  the  shoulders,  back,  thighs,  and  legs;  yellowish 
on  the  sides  of  the  head,  ears,  and  flanks.     It  is  common  in  the 
Alps,  and  is  found  in  all  the  high  mountains  and  great  forests  of 
Europe ;  it  lives  solitary,  and  ordinarily  does  not  attack  man  ex- 
cept when  provoked ;  but  then  he  becomes  very  formidable,  and 
strives  to  crush  his  antagonist  beneath  his  feet,  or  strangle  him  in 
the  embrace  of  his  paws. 

9.  2d.  The  White  Bear— Ursus  Maritimus— (Plate  2.  fig.  12.) 
is  easily  distinguished  by  his  form  and  by  the  colour  of  his  coat. 

8.  Describe  the  Brown  Bear  ?     In  what  parts  of  the  world  is  it  found  ? 
What  are  its  habits  ? 

9.  How  do  you  distinguish  the  White  Bear  ?  In  what  parts  of  the  world 
is  he  found  ?    Upon  what  does  he  feed  ?      In  what  particular  does  the  White 
Bear  differ  in  his  habits  from  all  other  bears  ?     How  does  the  White  Bear 
pass  the  winter  ? 

5* 


52 R  ACKQONS.— BADG  ERS. 

He  is  low  on  his  legs ;  his  body,  his  neck,  and  especially  his  head, 
are  more  elongated  than  in  any  other  species  of  this  genus  ;  lastly, 
the  interior  of  his  mouth  is  entirely  black.  This  animal  inhabits 
the  glacial  regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere  ;  it  feeds  on  fishes, 
young  amphibia,  and  young  cetacea  ;  nevertheless,  he  is  not  essen- 
tially carnivorous,  and  can  very  well  be  brought  to  live  on  bread 
alone.  He  swims  and  dives  with  astonishing  facility.  White  bears 
are  sometimes  met  in  numerous  troops,  which  also  distinguishes 
them  from  the  other  bears  which  are  always  solitary;  but  these 
animals  resemble  each  other  in  requiring  a  retreat  in  winter.  For 
this  purpose  they  content  themselves  with  some  cleft  in  the  rocks  or 
even  in  a  mass  of  ice  ;  and  without  preparing  any  bed,  they  there 
lie  down,  and  permit  themselves  to  be  buried  under  enormous 
masses  of  ice ;  they  pass  in  this  way  the  months  of  January  and 
February  in  a  true  lethargy. 

10.  3d.  The  Black  Bear — Ursits  Jlmericanus — lives  in  forests, 
feeds  on  fruits    and  flesh,  is  skilful    in  fishing,  and  dwells    in 
the  hollows  of  living  trees.     It  is  found  in  all  the  northern  parts 
of  America.     In  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  elevated   regions  of 
the    Missouri,  there  is  another  species  which  is  much  larger, 
stronger,  and  fiercer :  it  is  called  the  Grizzly  Bear,  and   its  fur 
which  is  greyish,  is  much  esteemed. 

11.  The  RACKOONS — Procyon, — very  much  resemble  bears,  ex- 
cept that  they  have  a  long  tail ;  they  have  very  nearly  the  same 
habits  as  those  animals,  but  are  better  climbers  and  more  carnivo- 
rous ;  they  are  of  moderate  size,  and  inhabit  the  forests  of  America. 
There  is  one  species  which  is  curious  from  its  singular  habit  of 
never  eating  anything  without  previously  plunging  it  into  water. 

12.  The  BADGERS — Meles — are   nocturnal  animals,  having  a 
cringing  gait,  a  very  short  tail,  the  toes  very  much  enveloped  in 
the  skin,  and  are  particularly  distinguished  by  having  a  pouch 
situate  beneath  the  tail,  from   which  exudes  a  fatty,  fcetid  oil. 
The  nails  on  their  fore  paws  being  very  long,  enables  them  to  dig 
with  great  effect.     Their  hair  is  long  and  silky. 

13.  The  common  Badyer, —  /)/</<«  Europea— which  inhabits  the 
temperate  regions  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  keeps  at  the  bottom 
of  an  oblique,  tortuous  hole,  is  of  the  stature  of  a  middle  sized 
dog.     The  length  of  its  hair  veils  its  legs,  so  that  its  body  seems 
to  be  raised  but  little  above  the  earth.     Formerly,  the  hunting  of 

10.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  BLck  Bear  ?     Where  is  it  found  ? 

11.  What  are  Rackcons  ? 

12.  What  are  Badgers? 

13.  What  are  the   habits  of  the   common   Badger  f     What  parts  of  the 
world  docs  it  inhabit  ?     Does  this  animal  live  in  Jicles?     IB  it  much  hunted  f 
What  is  the  use  of  its  hair  ?  s 


DIGITIGRADE  MAMMALS. 53 

this  animal  was  more  followed  than  in  the  present  day,  and  now 
it  has  become  very  rare  in  France.  It  was  pursued  by  terrier 
dogs;  but  its  jaws,  armed  with  very  strong  teeth,  and  its  long  power- 
ful nails  enabled  it  to  resist  their  attacks  ;  it  inflicted  deep  wounds, 
and  defended  itself  with  all  its  arms,  lying  on  its  back.  Its  skin 
is  employed  as  coarse  fur,  and  its  hair,  which  cannot  be  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  felt,  is  employed  for  making  shaving  and  other 
brushes 

14.  The  Gluttons— Guh— (Plate  2,/#.  15.)  resemble  the  Bad- 
gers very  much,  but  are  more  carnivorous :  their  name  has  been 
derived  from  an  exaggerated  notion  of  the  voracity  of  one  species 
of  this  genus,  the  Glutton  of  the  North —  Ursus  Gulo — which  is 
said  to  be  very  cruel,  and  to  lie  in  ambush  upon  a  tree,  to  leap 
on  the  backs  of  large  animals  upon  which  it  preys. 

Tribe  of  Digiligrada. 

15.  The  animals  of  this  tribe  are  distinguished  by  the  confor- 
mation of  their  paws.     In  place  of  resting  the  entire  sole  of  the 
foot  on  the  ground  and  consequently  having  this  part  free  of  hair, 
they  walk  on  the  ends  of  their  toes  with  the  tarsus  raised,  and 
hence  their  gait  is  lighter,  and  their  speed  greater.     They  are 
more  exclusively  carnivorous  than  the  Plantigrades,  and  their 
taste  for  flesh  joined  with  their  fleetness  makes  them    essentially 
hunting  animals;  their  paws  are  almost  always  armed  with  power- 
ful nails  or  talons,  and  their  jaws  are  stout  and  their  molar  teeth 
almost  entirely  trenchant.  The  number  of  small  tuberculous  teeth 
which  are  found  in  the  back  of  the  mouth,  varies,  and  as  these 
differences  correspond  with  their  more  or  less  sanguinary  disposi- 
tion,  they   are  taken  as  the  basis-  of  the  classification   of  the 
Digitigrada : 

14.  What  are  Gluttons  ?     What  is  the  origin  of  their  name  ? 

15.  How  are  the   Digitigrade  animals   characterised  ?     How    are   they 
classed? 

ICT  (Questions  answered  by  the  table.')  What  are  the  kinds  and  number  of 
teeth  of  the  Martens? 

What  is  th"  character  of  their  nails?  What  are  the  kinds  and  number  of 
teeth  of  the  Polecat?  What  is  remarked  of  their  toes? 

How  does  the  Skunk  differ  from  the  Polecat  and  Marten  ? 

What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  Otter  'f 

What  are  the  generic  characters  of  the  genus  Dog  ? 

In  what  does  the  organization  of  the  Civet  differ  from  that  of  the  Dog  ? 

What  are  the  organic  characters  of  the  Hyena  ? 

What  are  the  organic  characters  of  the  genus, Cat? 

How  many  tuberculous  teeth  has  the  Marten  ?  Polecat  ?  Skunk  ?  and 
Otter?  What  number  of  tuberculous  teeth  have  Cats  and  Hyenas  behind 
the  carnivorous  teeth  ? 


•VdVHDIAIDIQ    VHOAINHYQ 


DIGITIGRADE  MAMMALS. 55 

16.  These  different  genera  maybe  distinguished  from  each  other 
by  other  characters,  which  are  less  important  than  those  furnished 
by  the  teeth,  but  which  are  more  easily  remembered.  The  fol 
lowing  table  contains  a  synopsis  of  these  secondary  characters  : 

DlGITIGRADA. 

Having  the  nails 


f  **. 


2!> 

< 

Sir? 

fa 
»  S 

S.  S3  J 

P    n 

flu 

si-S-? 

3   < 
0.  « 
V3 

16.  Are  there  any  other  characters  by  which  the  genera  of  the  Digiti- 
grade  animals  may  be  distinguished  1 


56  POLECATS. 


17.  The  Digitigrades  provided  with  a  single  tuberculous  tooth 
in  each'jaw,  form  A  SMALL  NATURAL  GROUP,  designated  under  the 
name   of  Vermiform    Carnivora,  on  account  of  their  long,  lank 
body,  and  short  legs.     They  have  five  toes  on  all  the  feet,  and 
exhale  an  odour  more  or  less  strong,  caused  by  a  liquid  which  is 
secreted  by  two  glands  situated  near  the  anus.     Although  of  small 
stature,  these  animals  are  very  sanguinary  ;  and  from  their  lank 
form,  they   can  pass  through  the  smallest  apertures ;  they  are 
divided,  as  we  have  already  seen,  into  Polecats,  Mullens,  Skunks, 
and  Otters. 

18.  The   POLECATS, —  Putorhis, — are    the    most    sanguinary 
of  all.     Their  head  is  round  and  the  short    muzzle  extends  be- 
yond the  mouth ;  the  ears  are  rounded,  and  much  wider  than 
long ;  the  tongue  is  covered  with  rough  papillae ;  the  coat  is  well 
furnished,  shining  and    soft;  their  tail  is  long,  and  they    have 
glands  on  each  side  of  the  anus  which  secrete  a  viscid  and  foetid 
matter.     Their  mode  of  life  is  solitary  and  nocturnal.     They  are 
found  in  both  the  old  and  new  world. 

19.  The  common  Polecat, — Mustela  Putorivs, — is  brown  with 
yellowish  flanks  and  white  spots  on  the  head,  and  is  from  fifteen 
to  eighteen  inches  in  length,  without  including  the  tail,   which  is 
six  inches  long.     It  is  the  terror  of  hen-roosts  and  rabbit  warrens. 
It  approaches  dwellings,  mounts  on  the  roofs,  and  establishes  it- 
self in  hay-lofts,  in  barns,  and  in  places  seldom  visited,  from  which 
it  goes  forth  only  at  night  in  search  of  its  prey.     It  glides  into 
poultry  yards,  mounts  into  dove-cots,  where,  without  making  as 
much   noise  as  the  Beech  Marten,  (Weasel,)  it  commits  more 
havoc  ;  it  cuts  or  crushes  the  heads  of  all  the  poultry,  then  carries 
them  off  one  by  one,  and  stores  them  away.     If,  as  it  often  hap- 
pens, the  animal  cannot  carry  them  off  entire,  on  account  of  the 
hole  by  which  he  entered,  being  too  small,  he  eats  the  brains  and 
bears  off  the  heads.     It  is  also  very  fond  of  honey  ;    it   attacks 
hives  in  winter,  and  forces  the  bees  to  abandon  them.      Pole- 
cats live  on  prey  in  towns,  and  on  game  in  the  country ;  they 
establish  themselves  in  rabbit-burrows,  in  clefts  of  rocks,   in  the 
trunks   of  hollow  trees,  from  which  they  sally  only  at  night   to 
spread  over  the  fields  ;  in  the  woods,  they  seek  the  nests  of  par- 
tridges, of  larks,  and  quails  ;  they  also  climb  trees  to  prey  ;  they 

17.  What  is  meant  by  vermiform  carnivora?     By  what  characters  is  this 
group  distinguished  ? 

18.  What  is  the  character  of  the  Polecats  ?     What  is  their  mode  of  life? 
In  what  parts  of  the  world  are  they  found  ? 

19.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  common  Polecat?     What  are 
its  habits  ?    On  what  does  the  common  polecat  feed  ? 


FERRET.— WEASEL.  57 


watch  for  rats,  moles,  and  field-mice,  and  they  wage  a  continual 
war  against  rabbits,  who  cannot  escape,  because  they  can  readily 
enter  their  holes.  The  Polecat  is  found  in  all  the  temperate  parts 
of  Europe. 

20.  The  Ferret — Mustela  Furo — also  belongs  to  the  genus  of 
the  Polecats,  and  very  much  resembles  the  common  polecat.     Its 
coat  is  clear  brown  or  yellowish  ;  its  body  is  more  elongated, 
more  delicate,  its  head  narrower,  its  muzzle  more   pointed  than 
the  polecat ;  the  female  is  smaller  than  the  male.     It   is  origin- 
ally from  Barbary ;  it  is  naturalized  in  Spain,  but  in  France  it  is 
only  met  with  domesticated,  and  is  employed  to  hunt  rabbits  in 
their  burrows.     This  animal,  says  Buffon,  is  naturally,  the  mortal 
enemy  of  the  rabbit :  when  a  rabbit,  even  dead,  is   shown  to  a 
young  ferret  that  has  never  seen  one,  he  throws  himself  upon  it, 
and  bites  with  fury ;  if  living,  he  seizes  it  by  the  neck  or  the  nose 
and  sucks  its  blood.     When  let  into  a  rabbit-hole,  it  is  muzzled, 
that  it  may  not  kill  the  rabbits  at  the  bottom  of  the  burrow,  but 
only  compel  them  to  sally  forth  and  be  caught  in  a  net  with  which 
it  is  usual  to  cover  the  entrance. 

21.  The  Weasel — MrtslelaVulyaris, — is  another  species  of  the 
genus  Polecat ;  it  is  of  a  chestnut  colour  above,  white  below,  in  length 
about  six  inches,  with  an  addition  of  fifteen  or  eighteen  lines  ior 
the  tail.     This  animal  is  very  common  in  temperate  climates,  and 
is  terrible  to  hen-roosts,  into  which  its  small  size  enables  it  to  in- 
sinuate itself  through  very  narrow  openings.     When  a  Weasel 
enters  a  hen-roost,  it  does  not  attack  the  cocks  or  old  hens,  but 
selects  the  young  hens  and  chicks,  kills  them  by  a  simple  wound 
inflicted  on  the  head,  and  then  carries  them  off  one  after  the  other ; 
it  also  breaks  the  eggs  and  sucks  their  contents  with  incredible 
avidity.     In  winter,  it  generally  dwells  in  granaries  or  in  barns, 
frequently  remaining  there  till  the  spring,  to  give  birth  to  its  young, 
on  the  hay  or  straw  ;  during  all  this  time  it  wages  war,  more  suc- 
cessfully than  a  cat,  against  rats  and  mice,  because  they  cannot 
escape,  as  it  follows  them  into  their  holes ;  it  climbs,  into  dove- 
cots, and  destroys  pigeons,  sparrows,  &c.     In  the  spring,  it  goes 
to  some  distance  from  habitations,  particularly  into  low  places, 
about  mills,  along  the  banks  of  streams  and  rivers,  and  conceals 
itself  in  thickets  to  surprise  birds,  and  often  establishes   itself  in 
the  hollow  of  an  old  willow  to  bring  forth  its  young. 

20.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  Ferret?     To  what  part  of  the 
world  did  the  Ferret  originally  belong?     What  are  its  habits? 

21.  What  are   the   specific   characters    of  the  Weasel  ?     What  are  its 
habits  ?     In  what  part  of  the  world  is  it  found  ? 


58  MARTENS. 


22.  We  will  mention  still  another  species  of  the  genus  Polecat, 
called  the  Ermine, —  Mustela  Erminea.     Its  body  is  about  nine 
inches  in  length,  and  the  tail  about  four.     This  little  animal  has 
two  coats ;  in  winter,  it  is  white  with  the  tail  tipped  with  black, 
and  bears  the  name  of  Ermine ;  during  the  spring,  it  is  of  a  beau- 
tiful brown  above,  and   yellowish  white  below,  with  the  end  of 
the  tail  always  black:  it  is  then  the  Roselet.     It  is  found  in   the 
northern  parts  both  of 'the  old  and  new  continent ;  and  though 
not  so  common  as  the  Weasel  in  France,  it  is  not  rare.     It  seeks 
stony  countries,  and  avoids  the  neighbourhood  of   habitations. 
The  winter  skins  of  this  species  are  very  much  sought  as  fur, 
and   form  a   very   considerable   article   of  commerce;    but  the 
Ermine  of  the  most  northern  countries  is  most  esteemed,  because 
it  is  so  brilliantly  white,  while  that  of  temperate  climates  always 
retains  a  yellowish  tint 

23.  The  MARTENS, —  Mu&tela,  (the  true  Weasel) — properly  so 
called,  resemble  the  Polecats  very  much,  but  differ  from  them  in 
having  a  muzzle  more  elongated,  and  a  tongue  covered  with  soft 
papillae.     The  numerous  species  of  this  genus  are  scattered  over 
both  continents  ;  among  them  we  will  mention : 

24.  The  Commntt  IMarteii, —  Mustela  Martex, — brown,  with  a 
yellow  spot  on  the  throat,  and  of  a  stature  rather  larger  than  that 
of  the  Beech  Marten.     It  lives  in  the  woods  of  northern  Europe, 
avoiding  inhabited  places  and  the  open  fields ;  it  destroys  a  great 
many  small  quadrupeds  and  birds ;    it  takes  possession  of  eggs, 
and  climbs  to  the  highest  branches  of  trees  to  dislodge  them.     It 
is  said  to  be  found  also  in  South  America. 

25.  The  Beech  Marten,— Mmtela  Foina— (Plate  2,  fig.  16.) 
brown,  with  all  the  under  part  of  the  throat  and  neck  whitish, 
about  sixteen  inches  in  length,  besides  the  tail  which  measures 
eight.     It   is  found    in  European   forests,  and  often  approaches 
habitations,  where  it  even  establishes  its  abode.     But  it  is  a  dan- 
gerous guest :  when  it  succeeds  in  obtaining  an  entrance  into  a 
hen-roost,  or  a  pheasant- walk,  it  commences  by  putting  every 
thing  to  death  in  its  reach,  and  then  bearing  all  off,  piece  by  piece, 
to  its  retreat ;  it  is  also  voraciously  fond  of  eggs ;  it  seizes  rats,  mice, 
moles  and  birds  in   their   nests.     It  is  also  fond  of  honey  and 
hempseed. 

22.  What  is  the  Ermine?     Where  is   it  found?     What  are  its  habits? 
Of  what  colour  is  it  ?     Has  climate  any  influence  on  the  colour  of  its  coat  ? 

23.  How  does  the  genus  Marten  differ  from  that  of  Polecats  ? 

24.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  common  Marten?      What  are 
its  habits  ? 

25.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  Beech  Marten  ?      Where  is  it 
found  ?     What  are  its  habits  ? 


OTTERS.  59 


26.  The  Sable  Marten — Mmtcla  Zibelina — resembles  the  pre- 
ceding species  in  size  and  colour.      It    differs   from  the   other 
Martens  in  having  hair  growing  on  the  under  surface  of  the  toes, 
which  protects  them  from  the  cold.     Its  fur  is  a  valuable  article 
of  commerce.     It  inhabits  the  most  northern  parts  of  Europe 
and  Asia  ;  and  abounds  most  in  the  mountains  of  frozen  countries, 
the  intense  cold  of  which,  renders  them  uninhabitable :  as  it  is 
the  winter  coat  that  is  most  highly  appreciated,  the  pursuit  of  the 
Sable  is  of  all  kinds  of  hunting  the  most  arduous  and  perilous. 

27.  The  Skunks — Mephitis — are  celebrated  for  the  intolerable 
stench  which  they  diffuse  to  a  great  distance.     Most  of  them  in- 
habit America. 

28.  The  OTTERS, —  Lutra,— possess   a  peculiar  physiognomy, 
which  prevents  them  from,  being   confounded    with    any  of  the 
neighbouring  genera.     The  head  is  large  and  compressed,  the 
body  squat,  and  tongue  semi-aspirate ;  their  toes  are  armed   with 
short  nails,  and  are  united  in  their  whole  length,  by  a  wide  and 
strong  membrane,  which  renders  these  animals  good  swimmers  ; 
the  tail  is  flattened  horizontally ;  their  coat  is  very  thick,  formed 
by  two  kinds  of  hairs,  the  silky  quite  long,  stout,  hard,  shining, 
and  thicker  at  the  point  than  at  the  base ;  the  woolly,  which  are 
shorter,  and  generally  more  numerous,  forming  a  thick  and  ex- 
tremely soft  fur.     These  animals  live  chiefly  upon  fish,  and  in- 
habit bye  places,  or  nooks,  which  they  line  with  dry  grass,  on  the 
banks,  or  in  the  neighbourhood  of  water ;  they  remain  concealed 
during  the  day,  and  sally  in  search  of  food  only  at  night.     Some 
species  are  known  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  world. 

29.  The   Common  Otter, — Lutra  Vttlgaris, — about  two  feet 
long,  tail  about  one  foot  in  length,  brown  above,  greyish  below, 
and  sometimes  marked  with  white  spots,  lives  on  the  margins  of 
ponds  and  rivers,  in  different  parts  of  Europe. 

30.  The  Sea  Otter — Mustria  Lulris — is  twice  the  size   of  the 
common  Otter,  and  its  black  coat  of  the  vivid  brightness  of  velvet, 
forms  one  of  the  most  precious  of  the  furs.     The  English  and  the 
Russians  hunt  this  animal  in  all  the  northern  parts  of  the  Pacific 

26.  How  does  the  Sable  differ  from  other  Martens?     Where  is  it  found  ? 

27.  For  wh.it  particular  quality  are  Skunks  distinguished?     In  what  part 
of  the  world  are  they  found  ? 

28.  Wh  it  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Otter  ?     What  are  the  habits  of 
animals  of  this  genus  ? 

29.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  common  Otter  ? 

30.  What   are  the   specific   characters  of  the  Sea  Otter?      Where  is  the 
Sea  Otter  found?     Does  this   animal  contribute  any  thing  to  commerce? 
In  what  respect  do  the   habits   of  this   animal   differ  from  those 
species  of  Ott  rs  ? 

6 


60  DOGS. 


Ocean,  and  annually  convey  a  great  number  of  skins  to  China 
and  Japan.  This  species  inhabits  Kamtschatka,  the  most 
northern  parts  of  America,  and  the  neighbouring  islands ;  most 
generally  it  keeps  on  the  sea  coast,  and  not  within  reach  of  fresh 
water,  like  the  other  species.  It  is  said  to  live  in  couples. 

31.  The  SECOND  GROUP  OF  DIGITIGRADE  CARNIVORA,  characterised 
by  the  existence  of  two  tuberculous  teeth  behind  the  carnivorous 
tooth  of  the  upper  jaw,  is  composed  of  the  least  sanguinary  ani- 
mals  of  this  tribe ;  they  are  of  pretty  large  stature,  but  their 
courage  does   not  correspond  to  their  strength,  and  they  most 
generally  feed  on  carrion. 

32.  Amongst  the  genera  of  this  group,  the  first  that  will   be 
the  object  of  our  study,  is  the  genus  of  Docs :  it  is  composed 
of  species  which  resemble  each  other  in  the  principal  parts  of 
their  organization,  which,  nevertheless,  are  separated  into  two 
very  distinct  sub-genera;  DOGS  and  FOXES. 

33.  All  these  animals  have  three  false  molars  above,  and  four 
below,  and  two  tuberculous  teeth  behind  each  carnivorous  tooth; 
their  tongue  is  soft ;  their  fore-feet  have  five  toes,  and  the  hind 
ones,  four;  their  nails  are  adapted  for  digging;  their  vision  is 
excellent,  their  hearing  fine  and  their  sense  of  smell  prodigious; 
they  mix  vegetable  with  their  animal  food,  and  are  fond  of  putrid 
meat.     Generally,  they  are  animals  of  moderate  stature,  and  their 
proportions  are  indicative  of  their  strength  and  activity. 

34.  The  sub-genus  of  DOGS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED,  is  composed 
of  common  dogs,  and  different  species  of  wolves ;  it   is    distin- 
guished from  that  of  the  foxes  by  the  tail,  which  in  the  latter  is 
longer  and  more  tufted  ;  by  the  form  of  the  muzzle,  and  particu- 
larly by  the  disposition  of  the  pupil.     In  dogs,  as  well  as  in  other 
diurnal  animals,  this  opening  is  circular,  while  in  foxes  it  takes, 
when  contracting  under  the  influence  of  light,  the  form  of  a  slit,  a 
peculiarity  which  is  characteristic  of  nocturnal  animals. 

35.  The  Domestic   Doy,  —  Canis  Famiiiaris — is.  distinguished 
from  other  species  of  this  genus  by  his  recurved  tail,  otherwise 
varying  infinitely  in  size,  form,  colour,  and  quality  of  hair.  This 

31.  How  are  animals  of  the  second  group  of  Digitigrade  Carnivora  dLtin« 
guished?     Are  animals  of  this  group  vt  ry  courageous? 

32.  Do  the  species  of  the  genus  Dog  resemble  each  other  in  their  organi- 
zation ?     How  is  this  genus  divided  ? 

33.  Wh.it  are  the  general  characteristics  of  the  genus  Dog? 

34.  What  animals  compose  the  sub-genus   of  Dogs  properly  so    called? 
How  is  this  sub-genus  distinguished  from  that  of  Foxes  ?    What  peculiarity 
characterises  noctuinal  animals? 

35.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  Domestic  Dog  ?     What  signs 
indicate  its  age  / 


DOGS.  61 


animal  is  born  with  his  eyes  closed,  and  does  not  open  them  till 
the  tenth  or  twelfth  day.  The  female  brings  forth  from  six  to 
seven,  and  sometimes  twelve  young  at  a  birth.  The  life  of  the 
dog  is  commonly  limited  to  fourteen  or  fifteen  years ;  though 
some  have  been  known  to  live  twenty  years.  Its  age  is  known 
by  the  teeth  becoming  blunt,  unequal  and  dark  coloured,  as  the 
animal  grows  old ;  when  young,  they  are  white,  trenchant  and 
pointed. 

36.  Dogs  are  voracious  and  gluttonous ;  nevertheless,  they  can 
fast  for  a  long  time ;  they   readily  accustom  themselves  to  all 
kinds  of  food,  although,  they  have  a  special  fondness  for  meat, 
and  particularly  for  carrion.     Their  stomach,  which  is  endowed 
with  great  energy,  digests  very  readily  the  hardest  and  most  com- 
pact bones. 

37.  The  dog  runs  with  great  rapidity  for  a  long  distance.     The 
pores  of  his  skin  being  very  much  closed,  he  never  sweats,  even 
in  the  very  hottest  weather ;  but  when  he  is  very  warm,  he  lolls 
out  his  tongue,  and  frequently  draws  it  in ;  he  plunges  into  the 
water  without  being  incommoded.     He  drinks  by  lapping,  so  that 
with  his  tongue,  he  lifts  the  water,  which,  being  in  this  way  in- 
troduced little  by  little,  into  the  stomach,  is  gradually   warmed, 
and  he  therefore  experiences  no  inconvenience,  by  the  sudden 
cold  that  a  considerable  quantity  of  water,  swallowed  at  once, 
produces  in  the  interior  of  the  body  when  very  warm. 

38.  The  acuteness  of  the  sense  of  smell,  in  some  races  of  dogs, 
gives  them  a  perception  that  is  not  to  be  found  in  any  other  species 
of  animals,  not  even   excepting  man.      This   sagacity   is  par- 
ticularly manifested  in  the  discovery  and  pursuit  of  game.     The 
dog  perceives  the  odorous  traces  with  which  the  soil  is  impreg- 
nated, for  twenty-four  hours  after  game  has  passed  over  it,  and 
in  this  way,  guides  himself  to  the  cover  where  the  animal  hides. 
There  are  two  principal  races  of  dogs  suited  for- hunting,  one  of 
which  is  trained  to  pursue  animals,  and  the  other  to  stand  at  the 
place  where  they  are  discovered. 

39.  The  dog  is  the  most  complete,  and  one  of  the  most  useful 
conquests  that  man  has  achieved  over  nature ;  the  whole  species 
has  become  our  property,  and  even  the  trace  of  his  primitive  state 
has  been  lost.     Wild  dogs,  which  are  found  in  many  countries, 
belong  to  the  domestic  races  that  have  regained  their  indepen- 

36.  What  is  the  food  of  dogs  ?     Have  Dogs  good  digestive  powers  ? 

37.  Do  Dogs  perspire  freely?    Why  do  Dogs  suffer  no  inconvenience  from 
drinking  cold  water  ? 

38.  Have  Dogs  a  keen  sense  of  smell  ?     How  is  this  fact  manifested  ? 

39.  Is  there  any  primitive  race  of  Dogs  ? 


62  DOGS. 


dence,  after  having  lost  it  for  a  certain  number  of  generations,  and 
in  this  way  have  resumed  some  of  the  traits  of  the  primitive 
species.  Causes  as  powerful  as  those  which  result  from  the  in- 
fluence of  difference  of  climate,  of  food,  &c.,  are  not  enough  to 
explain  the  numerous  modifications  that  the  domestic  dog  has 
undergone,  giving  rise  to  his  different  races.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  our  dogs  have  not  been  derived  from  a  single  species, 
but  that  they  came  from  different  species,  which  cannot  now  be 
recognised,  on  account  of  the  mixture  of  their  races.  Some  think 
the  dog  is  a  wolf,  and  others  again,  that  he  is  a  tamed  Jackal ;  dogs 
that  have  become  wild,  on  desert  islands,  do  not  however,  resem- 
ble either  one  or  the  other.  Wild  dogs,  and  those  belonging  to  demi- 
civilized  people,  such  as  the  nations  of  New  Holland,  have  straight 
ears,  which  has  led  to  the  belief  that  the  European  races  which 
approach  nearest  to  the  original  type,  are  the  Shepherd's  Dog  and 
Wolf-Dog.  , 

40.  We  will  now  mention  the  principal  races  of  dogs  that  are 
scattered   over  the  surface  of  the    earth.     Their  almost  infinite 
mixture,  joined  to  the  influence  of  climate,  of  food  and  education, 
has  produced  very  many  varieties  in  their  species. 

41.  1st.    The    Shepherd 's    Dog, —  Cauis    Domestic***, — is    of 
moderate  size,  the  ears  short  and  straight ;  his  whole  body,  with 
the  exception  of  the   muzzle,  is  covered   with  long  hairs ;  his 
colour  is  black,  or  dark  brown.     Of  all  the  species  of  dogs,  this 
one  possesses  most  instinct  for  guarding  flocks. 

42.  2d.  The  L'ipland  Dog, —  Dog  of  the  Esquimau?, — Canis 
Borealis, — resembles  the  Shepherd's  dog,  and  inhabits  the  most 
northern   parts   of  Europe,   Asia,   and   America,    where   he  is 
employed  as  a  beast  of  burthen  :  they  are  geared  from  five  to 
ten  together,  (sometimes  more)  to  very  light  sledges,  constructed 
of  osier,  and  forced  to  run  so  rapidly,  that  they  sometimes  accom- 
plish in  a  single  day,  a  journey  on  the  ice  of  twenty-five  leagues. 

43.  3d.  The  Newfoundland  Doa, —  Cants  Terra  Naca::—  The 
proportions  of  his  body  are  nearly  the  same  as  those   of  the 
Shepherds  Dog.     His  body  is  thickly  covered  with  long   soft 
hair,  and  his  tail  recurved  and  tufted.     His  colour  is  ordinarily 
white,  with  patches  of  black  ;  he  is  tall,  and  has  an  elongated  body. 
He  is   very  active   and  possesses  strength  superior  to  that  of 
any  other  dogs  of  the  same  size.     He  attaches  himself  strongly 
to  his  master,  but  is  shy  of  strangers.     He  is   remarkable   for 

40.  How  do  you  account  for  the  numerous  varieties  of  Dogs? 

41.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  Shepherds  Dog  ? 

42.  How  is  the  Lapland  Dog  employed  ? 

43.  What  a  re  the  specific  characters  of  the  New  foundland  Dog  ?  For  what 
is  this  Dog  remarkable  ? 


DOGS.        •  63 


his  toes  being  united,  for  about  one  half  their  length  by  a  mem- 
brane, and  fdfr  the  facility  with  which  he  takes  to  the  water, 
which  seems  to  him  a  second  element.  This  quality  has  caused 
him  to  be  taken  to  places  where  men  are  in  danger  of  being 
drowned,  in  order  to  rescue  them. 

44.  4th.  The  Wolf- Dog, — Cam's  Pomeranus, — is  distinguished 
from  the  Shepherd's  Doy  by  the  hairs  that  cover  all  parts  of  the 
head,  and  by  his  highly  raised  tail ;  his  colour  is  generally  white, 
or  black,  or  pale  red  :  in  some  countries  he  is  employed  to  watch 
the  flocks. 

45.  5th.  The  Hound, — Canis   Gallicus: — There  are  several 
varieties  remarkable  for  the  length  of  their  pendant  ears ;  they 
have  strong  limbs,  short  hair,  taU  recurved ;  they  are  white,  or 
black,  or  pale  red,  (fawn,)  or  spotted  with  these  different  colours. 
It  is  the  best  race  for  pursuing  game,  such  as  the  hare,  deer,  or 
wild  boar,   £c.     The  Spanish  pointer  and  setter  belong  to  this 
variety. 

46.  6th.  The  Turnspit,— Canis  Vertagm: — In  this  race  the 
legs  are  always  very  short,  sometimes  straight,  and  often  crooked ; 
the  ears  are  large,  long  and  pendant.     The  Turnspits  are  prized 
for  hunting  in  company  with  the  Hound. 

47.  7th.    The  Setting-Dog, — Canis  Avicularis, — differs  little 
from  the  preceding  and  the  ordinary  hound ;  the  muzzle  is  not  so 
long,  the  ears  are  shorter,  the  limbs  longer,  and  the  body  thicker. 

48.  8th.  The  Terrier,— Canis  7  "errarius :— This  race,  of  which 
they  form  packs  in  England  for  chasing  the  fox,  hare,  and  rabbits, 
is  black,  having  the  eyes,  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  and  the 
paws  of  a  deep  yellowish  red.     It  possesses  a  great  deal  of  viva- 
city and  intelligence,  and  great  ardour  in  the  chase ;  it  watches 
for  mice,  and  catches  them  with  as  much  adroitness  as  a  cat. 

49.  9th.    The   Spaniel, — Canis  Extrarius, — is  covered  with 
long  silky  hair ;  his  ears  are  pendant  like  those  of  the  hound,  and 
his  limbs  short ;  he  is  white  or  chestnut,  or  marked  with  these 
two  colours,  or  black.    It  varies  in  size,  and  is  valued  in  hunting ; 
as  a  watch  dog,  and  as  a  companion. 

50.  10th.    The    Grey-hound, — Cam'«    Grains;— This  animal 
possesses  an  elegant  form,  and  was  so  much  esteemed  formerly, 

44.  How  is  the  Wolf-Dog  distinguished  from  the  Shepherd's  Dog  ? 

45.  What  are  ihe  specific  characters  of  the  Hound  ? 

46.  For  w>at  is  the  Turnspit  valued? 

47.  How  does  the  Setting-Dog  differ  from  the  common  Hound  ? 

48.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  Terrier  ? 

49.  What   are  the   specific  characters   of  the   Spaniel  ?      For  what  is  it 
valued  ? 

50.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  Greyhound?     Does  the  Grey- 
hound  hunt,  by  the  sense  of  smell  like  the  common  Hound? 

6* 


64 DOGS. 

that  he  was  the  ordinary  companion  of  gentlemen,  who  in  those 
days  were  distinguished  by  their  charger,  their  falcon,  and  grey- 
hound. It  has  a  long  body,  a  long  delicate  head,  large  eyes,  a 
long  mouth,  teeth  sharp  and  very  white,  and  a  deep  chest.  Both 
his  fore  and  hind  legs  are  long  and  straight,  his  haunches  round 
and  strong,  his  loins  brawny  and  his  belly  thin.  He  is  the  most 
nimble  of  all  the  dogs,  and  is  fit  for  the  chase  from  twelve  months 
old.  He  hunts  by  the  eye  and  not  by  the  sense  of  smell,  and  it 
is  pretended  that  he  surpasses  them  all. 

51.  llth.  The  Danish  Dog, — Canis  Danicus, — This  dog  pos- 
sesses great  beauty  ;  he  is  white  and  spotted  with  an  elegant  pro- 
fusion of  small,  round,  black  spots.      His  sense  of  smell  is  not 
acute. 

52.  1 2th.  The  Mastiff,— Canis  Mastivm  ;— Dogs  of  this  race 
are  large,  vigorous,  and  nimble ;  their  ears  are  demi-pendant. 
They  are  gray,  white,  brown  and  black.     They   carry   the  tail 
high.     They  are  chiefly  employed  as  watch-dogs. 

53.  13th.     The     Water-  Dog, —  Canis   rfqnaticus, —  (Water 
Spaniel).     This  variety  is  one  of  the  most  intelligent  and  one  of 
the  most  common  in  France.     It  is  remarkable  for  its  long  curly 
hair ;  its  colour  is  black,  or  white,  or  mixed.     These  animals  are 
strongly  attached  to  their  masters,  and  perform  many  curious 
tricks.     They  are  very  fond  of  going  into  the  water. 

54.  14th.  The  Bull-  Dog,  -Canis  Moto<sus  :— The  dogs  of  this 
race  are  characterised  by  a  short  muzzle,  and  by  a  stout  body. 
Of  all  the  races,  this  is  the  least  intelligent.     It  is  divided  into  : 

55.  The  English  Bull- Dog, — Canis  rfnglicus, — is  easily  recog- 
nised by  the  large  head  and  body.     The  ears  are  small  and  demi- 
pendant  ;  his  thick  lips  fall  on  each  side  of  his  mouth  ;  his  legs 
are  short  and  strong ;  his  coat  is  smooth,  white  and  black.     This 
dog  is  employed   in  preference  to  others  tor  baiting  bulls  and 
wild  beasts. 

56.  The  Common  Eull-Dog — resembles  the  last  and    differs 
from  it,  in  being  smaller ;  it  often  has  the  nostrils  separated  by  a 
deep  fissure  or  cleft. 

57.  The    Ijiig-Dog,  -Canis  Fricawr,  —  resembles    the    two 
last,  but  the  lips  are  less  pendant  and  it  is  smaller.     Its   coat    is 

51.  What  is  the  Danish  dog? 

52.  How  is  the  Mastiff  described  ? 

53.  Whafis  the  character  of  the  Water-dog? 

54.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Bull-dog? 

55.  By  what  characters  is  the  English  Bull-dog  recognised  ? 

56.  In   what  respect  does  the  common  Buli-dog  differ  from  the  English 
Bull  dog? 

57.  What  is  the  Pug-dog  ? 


WOLF.— JACKAL.— FOX.  65 


smooth  and  generally  light  coloured,  except  the  face  which  is 
black.  It  does  not  possess  much  intelligence  and  is  very  heed- 
less. 

58.  The  Common  Wolf, —  Canis  Lupus, — is  another  species  of 
the  sub-genus  dog ;  it  is  easily  distinguished  from  the  domestic 
dog  by  its  tail,  which  is  straight,  in  place  of  being  recurved,  as 
in  the  last.     Its  ears  are  also  straight,  (Plate  3,  Jig.  2.)  audits 
coat  is  of  a  pale  red  or  fawn  colour.     This  animal  is  the  size  o* 
a  large  dog,  and  it  has  the  physiognomy  of  a  mastiff';  but  far 
from  being  like  the  dog,  eminently  social,  he  lives  almost  entirely 
solitary,  in  great  forests,  nor  does  he  unite  with  his  fellows    to 
form  troops,  except  when  pressed  by  hunger.     He  is  very  strong, 
active,  adroit,  and  provided  with  every  thing  that  is  necessary  to 
fit  him  for  the  pursuit,  attack,  and  conquest  of  his  prey ;  never- 
theless, he  is  naturally  sluggish  and  cowardly,  and  it  is  only  when 
pressed  by  hunger,  that  he  braves  danger,  and  dares  to  attack 
animals  which  are  under  the  protection  of  man,  as  lambs,  sheep, 
and  even  dogs.     Under  the  influence  of  excessive  hunger,  he 
commits  great  ravages.     He  attacks  women  and  children,  and 
sometimes  he  is  bold  enough  to  fall  upon  man.     He  inhabits  all 
Europe. 

59.  The  Jackal,  or  Golden    Wolf, —  Canis  Marcus, — which  is 
found  in  the  hot  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  in  its  habits  and  con- 
formation, more  strongly   resembles  the  domestic  dog  than  the 
common  wolf     It  permits  itself  to  be  tamed.     Many  naturalists 
consider  the  Jackal  as  the  original  stock  of  the  dog ;  and  many 
commentators  suppose  that  it  is  the  fox  of  Sampson. 

69.  The  second  group  of  the  genus  Dog  includes  the  FOXES. 
These  animals  have  the  same  dental  system  as  the  dog ;  but 
possess  a  larger  head,  a  more  pointed  muzzle,  a  longer  and 
more  bushy  tail,  and  by  day  their  pupils  present  the  form  of  a 
vertical  slit.  They  are  nocturnal,  burrow  in  the  earth,  exhale  a 
foetid  odour,  and  only  attack  feeble  animals.  Species  are  found  in 
all  parts  of  the  world.  Those  of  cold  countries  afford  a  valuable 
fur. 

61.  The  Common  Fox, — Canis  Vvlpes, — which  is  spread  over 
all  Europe,  has  a  red  coat.  Every  body  knows  this  famous  ani- 
mal through  his  tricks  and  cunning.  He  generally  establishes 
his  abode  in  the  edge  of  a  wood,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  a 
farm.  If  he  gains  entrance  into  a  poultry  yard,  he  slaughters 

58.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Wolf? 

59.  What  is  the  Jackal  ? 

60.  In  what  particulars  do  Foxes  differ  from  Dogs? 

6J.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  common  Fox  ?     On  what  does  it  feed? 


CIVET.— GENET. 


all  the  poultry,  and  loading  himself  with  a  part  of  the  spoils,  he 
hastens  to  deposite  it  at  some  distance,  then  returns,  and  carries 
off  another  part,  which  he  disposes  of  in  the  same  way,  taking 
the  precaution  however  to  change  the  place  of  deposite.  This  he 
repeats  several  times.  When  he  finds  birds  caught  in  a  snare, 
he  adroitly  frees  them  from  their  bonds  and  carries  them  off  to 
his  hole.  His  gluttony  accommodates  itself  to  everything.  When 
pressed  by  hunger,  he  eats  rats,  mice,  snakes,  toads,  lizards,  in- 
sects, and  even  contents  himself  with  vegetables.  Foxes  that 
live  near  sea  coasts  feed  upon  all  kinds  of  shell-fish. 

62.  The  genus  CIVET, —  Viverra, — includes  not  only  the  Civet 
properly  so  called,  but  also  the  Genet,  or  wild  cat,  the  Mangouste 
and  several  other  carnaria,  which  seem  to  fill  up  the  chain  of  re- 
lationship between  the  dogs  and  cats. — (Plate  2,  fig.  17,    and 
Plate  3,  Jig.  I.)  Like  the  last,  their  tongue  is  rough,  and  their 
nails  are  more  or  less  retracted  when  walking,  so  that  their  ex- 
tremities are  always  kept  very  sharp.     All  of  them  have  a  pouch 
placed  more  or  less  deeply  under  the  tail,  containing  a   greasy 
matter  which  frequently  exhales  a  very  strong  odour. 

63.  The   Civet  properly   so  called, — Civetta, — has  been  im- 
properly called  the  musk  cat.     It  is  ordinarily  of  an  ash  colour, 
spotted  white,  sometimes  striped  like  certain  species  of  cats.     Its 
perfume,  which  consists  of  the  greasy  matter  formed  in  the  pouch 
we  have  just  mentioned,  is  so  strong  that  it  penetrates  all  parts 
of  the  body,  and  the  skin  preserves  the  odour  for  a  long  time 
after  it  has  been  stripped  from  the  animal.     Although  originally 
from  hot  countries,  Guinea  and  the  central  parts  of  Africa,   the 
Civet  can  live  in  temperate  and  in  cold  climates,  if  protected  from 
the  injurious  influences  of  the  air.     It  has  been  acclimated  in  Hol- 
land, where  the  inhabitants  carry  on  a  considerable  trade  in  its 
perfume.     The  quantity  afforded  by  each  animal  depends  upon 
its  keeping;  and  diet  ;  the  more  abundant  its  food,  the  more  per- 
fume it  yields.     It  is  said  to  be  most  abundant  after  the  animal 
has  been  irritated. 

64.  The  Genet,—  Genetta,— (Plate 2.  fig.  17.)  bears  consider- 
able resemblance  to  the  Civet ;  its  colour  is  gray,  spotted  brown 
and  black  with  a  blackish  muzzle,  white  spots  on  the  brow,  on 
the  cheek,  and  on  each  side  of  the  end  of  the  nose ;  the  tail    is 

62.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  genus  Civet?     What  is  the  source  of 
the  odour  which  animals  of  this  genus  exhale  ?  t 

63.  What  are  the  specific  characters   of  the   Civet   properly   so   called? 
What  is  the  source  of  its  perfume  ?     To  what  use  is  this  animal  applied  in 
Holland  ? 

C4.  What  are  the  specific  characters  of  the  Genet  ? 


MANGQUSTK.— HYENAS. 67 

ringed  white  and  black.  It  is  met  with  from  the  south  of  France 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  It  frequents  along  brooks,  near 
springs,  &c.  Its  skin  is  an  important  article  of  peltry.  Like  the 
Civet,  it  has  a  pouch,  containing  a  species  of  perfume.  It  clears 
the  houses  of  rats  and  mice,  which  cannot  endure  its  odour. 

65.  The  Mnngou.\te  of  Eg y /if, or  Pharaoh'1  s  Rat, — Ichneumon 
Pftarannis —  Viverra  Ichneun  on — {Plate  3,  fiy.  l.)also  belongs  to 
the  genus  of  Cioets.     It  resembles  the  Civet,  but  is  distinguished 
by  its  large  eyes,  with  the  pupils  elongated  transversely  ;  which 
are  susceptible  of  being  almost  entirely  covered  by  a  large  wink- 
ing eyelid,  called  membraua  nictitans.     It  is  larger  than  our  cats, 
slender  like  the  weasel,  and  of  a  grayish  colour.     This  animal  is 
the  famous  Ichneumon  of  the  ancients,  which  was  worshipped  by 
the  Egyptians      All  that  the  ancients  have  said  in  relation  to 
its   fights   with   the  crocodile   is  fabulous.     The  Mangouste  is 
naturally  mild  and  timid,  and  renders  very  important  service  to 
Egypt,  for  it  destroys  a  great  number  of  crocodile  eggs ;  it  also 
feeds  on  small  animals  of  all  kinds.     When  domesticated  it  hunts 
mice  and  the  small  reptiles  which  are  so  common  in  that  country. 

66.  The    THIRD    GROUP    OF    CARNIVOROUS    DIGITIGRADES,    includes 

those  animals  of  this  tribe  which  have  no  small  teeth  behind  the 
great  molar  of  the  lower  jaw.  In  this  group  are  found  the  most 
cruel,  the  most  carnivorous,  and  on  account  of  their  strength, 
the  most  formidable  animals  ;  they  have  been  separated  into  two 
genera  :  the  HYENAS  and  CATS. 

67.  HYENAS,  (I'laie  3,  fig.  3,)  are  distinguished  from  animals 
of  the   genus   CAT,   by  the  number  of  their  fingers,  which  is 
four  throughout,  by  their  nails  which  are  adapted  for  digging,  and 
which  are  never  drawn  in  or  retracted  when  on  the  march,  and 
by  the  position  of  their  teeth,  whose  strength  is  so  great  that  they 
can  crush  the  bones  of  the  strongest  of  their  prey.     Their  tongue 
is  rough,  their  sense  of  smell  acute,  their  tail  short  and  pendant, 
and,  below  the  anus  there  is  a  deep  pouch  in  which  a  glandular 
apparatus  secretes  a  viscous  matter,  which  diffuses  a  very  disa- 
greeable odour      The  coat  is  rough,  not  thick,  composed  of  long 
hairs,  which  form  a  mane  along  the  back.     Their   gait  is  most 
singular ;  they  keep  the  step  of  the  hind  legs  always  lower  than 
that  of  the  fore.     These  animals  are  nocturnal,  live  in  caverns, 

65.  What  is  the  history  of  the  Mangouste?     Upon  what  does  it  usually 

66.  What  animals  are  included  in  the  third  group  of  carnivorous  Digiti. 
grades  ? 

67.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  the  Hyenas  ?     What  do  they 
especially  feed  on  ? 


68 CATS. 

and  are  extremely  voracious;  they  feed  especially  on  dead  bodies, 
and  seek  them  even  in  burial  places ;  they  possess  a  reputation 
for  ferocity  which  they  do  not  merit. 

68.  TheComnion  Hyena, —  Hyena  Vu'garis, — is  originally  from 
Asiatic  Turkey,  Syria,  and  some  countries  of  Africa.     It  is  of  the 
size  of  a  wolf,  and  at  first  sight,  somewhat  resembles  him.     His 
coat  is  of  a  brownish  gray,  and  marked  with  white  stripes.     His 
head  is  commonly  carried  low ;  the  back  seems  elevated  like  that 
of  the  hog;  he  has  long  bristles  which  fall  from  each  side.  t 

69.  The  cry  of  this  animal  is  peculiar :  it  begins  with  a  sound 
that  one  might  take  for  the  groans  of  a  man,  and  ends  pre- 
cisely as  if  a  person  were  making  efforts  to  vomit. 

70.  The  CATS, — Felix, — ,a  name  under  which  naturalists  com- 
prehend, not  only  common  Cats,  but  also  Tigers,  Lions,  &c.)  of 
all  the  carnivora,  are  the  most  completely  armed :    their  short 
jaws  are  moved  by  prodigiously  strong  muscles  (Plate  3,  jig.  5;) 
they  have  two  false  molar  teeth  in  the  upper  and  two  in  the  lower 
jaw,  followed  by  a  very  large  carnivorous  tooth ;  their  retractile 
nails,  which  are  hidden  amongst  the  toes  when  in  a  state  of  repose 
by  the  action  of  elastic  ligaments,  never  lose  either  their  point  or 
edge.  (Plate  3,  fiy.   6.)     The  number  of  their  toes  is  five  on 
the  four  feet,  and  four  on  the  hind.  They  possess  a  sense  of  hearing 
which  is  exceedingly  fine,  and  it  is  the  best  developed  of  their  senses. 
Their  sight  does  not  seem  to  have  a  very  long  range,  but  they 
see  well  both  by  day  and  by  night ;  their  pupil  dilates  and  closes 
according  to  the  quantity  of  light ;  with  some,  it  is  elongated  ver- 
tically, and  with  others  it  is  round.     They  make  great  use  of  their 
sense  of  smell ;  they  exercise  it  before  eating,  and  always  when 
they  apprehend  disturbance  from  any  cause.     Their  tongue   is 
clothed  with  very  rough  horny  points.     Their  coat  is  generally 
soft  and  fine,  and  the  whole  surface  of  their  body  is  very  sensible 
to  the  touch ;  their  mustaches  particularly,  seem   to  be  the  seat 
of  very  delicate  impressions. 

71.  Animals  of  the  genus  CAT,  are  spread  almost  every  where 
over  the  surface  of  the  globe :  they  every  where  possess  similar 
habits.     Though  endowed  with  prodigious  strength,  they  never 
openly  attack  other  animals  ;  stratagem  and  cunning  direct  all 
their    movements.     They  never  force  their  prey  into  flight ;  but 

68.  Where  js  the  common  Hyena  found  ?     What  are  its  characters? 

69.  What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  cry  of  the  common  Hyena? 

70.  What  are  the  gtn»  ric  characters  of  the  genus  Cat?     What  is  the  kind, 
number  and  position  of  their  teeth  ?     What  is  the  character  of  their  vision 
and  eyes  ? 

71.  What  are  the  habits  of  animals  of  the  genus  Cat  ? 


LTON.— TIGER.— JAGUAR. 69 

most  frequently  concealed  in  a  bushy  covert,  near  the  source  of 
running  water,  they  await  the  animal  they  design  attacking,  and 
at  a  single  bound  alight  upon  their  victim. 

72.  At  the  head  of  this  genus  is  placed  the  Lion, — Felis  Leo, — 
which  is  five  or  six  feet  in  length  from  the  end  of  the  muzzle  to 
the  origin  of  the  tail,  three  feet  high,  distinguished  by  a  square 
head,  the  brush  of  hair  which  terminates  his  long  tail,    and   the 
mane  that  covers  the  head,  neck  and  shoulders  in  the  male.     It 
is  the  strongest  of  the  carnivorous  animals.     It  has  an  imposing 
air,  a  proud  look,  and  noble  gait.     Such  is  his  power  that  a  single 
blow  of  his  foot  is  enough  to  crush  the  sides  of  a  horse,  and  to 
knock  down  the  strongest  man  with  a  blow  of  his  tail.     He  can 
clear  at  a  single  bound,  a  space  of  thirty  feet,  and  he  drags  with 
ease  to  great  distances  the  largest  bullocks.     Formerly  he   was 
spread  over  three  fourths  of  the  old  world,  but  at  present,   he 
appears  to  be  almost  confined  to  Africa  and  some  of  the  neigh- 
bouring parts  of  Asia.     The  roar  of  the  Lion  is  such,  that  when 
it  resounds  in  the  mountains  it  resembles  distant  thunder.     This 
roar  is  hollow  and  deep ;  in   his   paroxysms  of  rage   he  utters 
another  cry  not  less  frightful,  but  short,  broken,  and  reiterated. 
Nothing  is  more  dreadful  than  this  animal  when  he  prepares  for 
combat.     He  lashes  his  flanks  with  his  long  tail ;  his  mane  be- 
comes  erect,  bristling,  and  envelopes  his   whole  head ;  all  his 
muscles  are  in  motion  ;  his  enormous  eye-brows  half  conceal  his 
pupils  ;  he  shows  his  teeth  and  frightful  tongue,  and  he  protrudes 
his  claws  which  are  almost  as  long  as  the  finger ;  his  approach 
would  freeze  with  terror  the  boldest  of  men.     With  the  excep 
tion  of  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  and  hippopotamus,  no  other 
animal  dares  to  contend  with  him. 

[The  flesh  of  the  Lion  is  eaten  by  the  Hottentots ;  and  a  tribe 
of  Arabs,  between  Tunis  and  Algiers,  live  almost  entirely  upon  it.] 

73.  The  animal  which  some  authors  call  the  American  Lion, 
is  another  species   of  the  genus  cat,   named    Couguar, — Felis 
Concolor, — which  belongs  to  the  new  world. 

74:  The  Royal  Tiger,  or  Eastern  Tiger, — Felis  Tigris, — is  a 
still  more  formidable  animal  than  the  Lion,  for  he  equals  him  in 
size  and  strength,  and  exceeds  him  in  ferocity  ;  his  hair  is  rough 
and  yellow  above  with  transverse  black  stripes.  (Plate  3, Jig.  4.) 
He  inhabits  India,  and  there  commits  the  greatest  ravages. 

75.  The  Jaguar, — Felis  Onca,—  (the  Ounce,)  which  is  almost 
sfs  large  as  the  Royal  Tiger,  and  almost  as  dangerous,  inhabits 

72.  What  aie  the  specific  chaiacters  of  thu  Lion  ?    Where  is  he  found  ? 

73.  What  is  the  American  Lion  ? 

74.  What  is  the  Royal  Tiger  ? 

75.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Jaguar  ? 


70        PANTHER.— LYNX.— DOMESTIC  CAT.— AMPHIBIA. 

the  great  forests  of  America ;  his  coat  is  yellow  above,  with  black 
spots  in  the  form  of  eyes  or  rings,  arranged  in  four  rows  along 
the  flanks,  and  white  striped  with  black  below.  He  is  sometimes 
distinguished  under  the  name  of  American  Tiger,  and  furriers 
call  him  the  Great  Panther. 

76.  The  Panther, —  Mis  Pardm — so  remarkable  for  the  beauty 
of  his  yellow  coat  with  black  spots  in  the  form  of  roses,  is  found 
throughout  Africa  and  in  the  warm  parts  of  Asia,  very  much  re- 
sembles the  Leopard,  which  inhabits  the  same  regions. 

77.  The  name   Lynx, — Fi-lis  Lynx, — The  mountain   cat — is 
given  to  another  species  of  cat,  remarkable  for  the  brush  of  hair 
that  tips  the  ears ;  it  is  about  two  feet  and  a  half  long  to  the 
origin  of  the  tail,  which  is  from  four  to  five  inches  in  length  ;  its 
coat  is  red,  spotted  with  brownish  red  ;  it  is  indigenous  to  tem- 
perate Europe,  but  has  almost  entirely  disappeared  from  populous 
countries  ;  it  is  still  met  with  in  the  Pyrenees,  in  the  mountains 
of  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and  in  Africa.     It  climbs  the  highest 
trees  of  the  forest,  and  there  lies  concealed  among  the  branches 
to  watch  the  Weasel,  Ermine,  Squirrel,  &c.     It   commits   great 
havoc  amongst  Jlocks,  and  destroys  a  great  number  of  hares  and 
game :  its  sight  is  so  piercing  that  the  ancients  attributed  to  it  the 
faculty  of  seeing  through  stone  walls ;  but  we  can  say,  that  it 
distinguishes  its  prey  at  a  much  greater  distance  than  any  other 
carnivorous  animal. 

78'.  The  Common  or  Domestic  Cat, — Felis  Catus, — is  origin- 
ally from  the  forests  of  Europe.  In  its  wild  state,  it  is  grayish 
brown,  with  transverse  undulating  stripes  of  a  deeper  colour 
above,  and  pale  below  ;  the  inside  of  the  thighs  and  the  four  paws 
yellowish,  and  the  tail  annulated  with  black.  When  domesticated 
it  varies  in  the  colour,  fineness,  and  length  of  its  hairs,  as  every 
body  knows. 

Tribe  of  Amphibia. 

79.  The  third  tribe  of  the  family  of  Carnivora  comprises  ani- 
mals which,  capable  of  being  submerged  for  a  long  time  and 
having  a  body  favourably  organised  for  natation,  keep  them- 
selves most  generally  in  the  sea,  although  they  have  a  constant 
necessity  for  respiring  the  air.  These  animals  have  been  named 
A  mphibia,  on  account  of  their  mode  of  life ;  their  feet  are  so 
short  and  so  enveloped  in  the  skin  that  they  serve  them  on  land 

76.  What  is  the  Panther? 

77.  What  are  the  habits  and  character  of  the  Lynx  ? 

78.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  domestic  Cat  ? 

79.  What  are  Amphibia?     What  families  are  included  in  the  tribe  of 
Amphibia  ? 


SEALS.— MORSE.  71 


only  for  crawling ;  but  as  the  spaces  between  their  fingers  are 
filled  up  by  membranes,  they  form  excellent  oars.  (Plate  3,  fig.  7.) 
They  only  land  to  bask  in  the  sun,  to  sleep,  and  to  suckle  their 
young.  Their  elongated  body,  their  very  moveable  spine,  pro- 
vided with  muscles  which  flex  it  with  great  force,  their  narrow 
pelvis,  their  rough  hair  lying  close  to  the  skin,  concur  to  render 
them  good  swimmers.  They  form  two  families:  the  Seal,  and 
the  Moise. 

80.  SEALS, — P/wca, — (Plate  3,  fig.   7.) — have  a  round  head 
resembling  that  of  a  dog,  a  mild  intelligent  look,  the  canine  teeth 
of  moderate  size,  the  fore  paws  armed   with   hooked   nails,   the 
posterior  extremities  directed  backwards  and  in  the  form  of  fins. 
These  animals  live  in  numerous  troops  near  coasts,    and  feed 
principally  on  fishes:  they  always  eat  in  the  water;  they  swim 
with  great  ease  and  dive  very  well.     The   ancients  knew  these 
animals  and  introduced  them  into  their  fables.     The  flocks  of 
Neptune  that  Proteus  tended  were  composed  of  seals,   and  the 
poetic  mythology  of  the  Greeks  has  transformed  these  Amphibia 
into  Tritons  and  Syrens  to  escort  their  god  of  the  sea,     Modern 
voyagers  often  designate  them  under  the  names    of  Sea-calves, 
Sea-cows,   Sea-bears,  fyc.      This    little  family   is    divided   into 
several  genera. 

81.  [Seals  are  found  on  the  coasts  of  the  South  Shetland  Isles, 
and  the  western  coast  of  America,  and  in  the  Northern  Seas. 
They  are  much  hunted  for  the  sake  of  their  skins.     These  ani- 
mals are  of  great  importance  to  the  Finnish  Islanders,  the  Kamt- 
schatkadales,  and  particularly  the  Greenlanders,  and  to  the  ii'squi- 
maux  of  Labrador.     The  two  latter  people  live  on  their  flesh, 
clothe  themselves,  build  their  summer  huts,  make  their  canoes,  &c. 
of  their  skins.     The  chase  of  the  seal  forms  their  principal  busi- 
ness, and  their  success  in  this,  forms  at  once  their  fortune  and  glory. 

82.  The  MORSE, —  Trichechns, — (the  Walrus) — is  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  Seal  by  its  enormous  canine  teeth  which,  planted 
in  the  upper  jaw,    are    directed    downwards  like  tusks,   and 
sometimes  attain   two  feet   in  length.    (Plate  3,  fig.  8.)     The 
necessarily  large  size  of  the  alveoli  for  the  accommodation  of  such 
immense  canine  teeth,  raises  up  the  whole  front  of  the  upper 
jaw  into  the  form  of  a  swelled  jowl,  and  the  nostrils  open  upwards 
instead  of  terminating  the  muzzle.     There  are  neither  incisor  nor 
canine  teeth  in  the  lower  jaw,  which  is  compressed  anteriorly,  to 
pass  between  the  enormous  canine  teeth  or  tusks  of  the  upper  one 

80.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  Seals  ?     What  are  their  habits  ? 

81.  What  parts  of  the  world  do  Seals  inhabit  ? 

82.  How  is  the  Morse  distinguished  from  the  Seal  ? 


72  POUCHED  ANIMALS. 


83.  The  chief  use  of  these  tusks  seems  to  be  to  aid  the  Morse 
to  detach  from  the  ground  and  rocks  the  substances  upon  which 
he  feeds.     They  also  serve  to  secure  him  to  the  rocks  before  he 
trusts  himself  to  sleep. 

84.  In  other  respects  the  Morse  resembles  the  seal,   the  only 
species  known  inhaoits  the  icy  ocean,  and  is  sometimes  twenty- 
feet  in  length. 

LESSON    VII. 

ORDER  OF  MARSUPIALIA. — Zoological  Characters. — Peculiarities 
of  Organization. —  Habit*,  (Opossums,  Phalangera,  Kangaroos.) 

ORDER  OF  RODENTIA — Zoological  Characters. —  Peculiarities  of 
their  Organization. —  Organization  and  Habits  of  the  Genus  of 
Squirrels. — Squirrels  properly  so  called,  (Common  Squirrel, 
Flying  Squirrel.)  —  Organization  and  Habits  of  the  Genus  of 
Hats. — Marmots.-  Habits.  —  Hibernation. — Dormousp. — Rats 
properly  so  called,  (Mouse,  Rat.) — Hamsters. — Field-mice.-— 
Jerboa. — Genus  of  Cantors. — Organization  and  Habits  of  Cas- 
tors properly  so  called. — Genus  of  Porcupines. —  Organization 
and  Habits  o/  Porcupines  properly  so  called. — Genus  of  Hares. 
— Organization  and  Habits  of  Hares  properly  so  cal'cd;  (Com- 
mon  Hare,  Rabbit.) — Genus  of  Guinea-pigs. — Chinchilla.— 
General  remarks  on  Peltries. —  The  use  of  Hair  in  the  manu- 
facture of  Felt. — Glue. 

1.  The  Marsupialia  are  unguiculate  mammals  whose  different 
organs,  at  the  time  of  birth,  are  very  imperfectly  formed ;  and 
they  adhere  by  some  means  to  the  teat  of  the  mother  until  their 
developement  is  accomplished.     In  the  majority  of  these  animals, 
the  skin  of  the  belly  forms,  in  front  of  the  teats,  a  pouch  which 
serves  to  lodge  the  young  while  they  are  suckled ;  it  is  from  this 
peculiarity  of  organization,  they  have  obtained  the  name  of  Mar- 
tupialia,  or  pouched-animals. 

2.  The  young,  incapable  of  motion  and  almost  without  a  dis- 
tinct form,  remain,  for  a  certain  time,  fixed   to  the  teats  of  the 
mother,  and  concealed  in  the  mammary  pouch  of  which  we  have 
just   spoken.     They  do  not  detach  themselves  until  they  are 

83.  What  use  does  the  Morse  make  of  its  tusks  ? 

84.  Where  is  the  Morse  found  ? 

1.  What  are  Marsupialia?     What  is  the  peculiarity  of  their  organization 
from  which  their  name  is  derived  ? 

2.  During  what  period  do  the  young  of  the  Marsupials  make  use  of  the 
mammary  pouch  ?     How  are  the  young  of  those  Marsupialia  that  have  no 
pouch  enabled  to  cling  to  their  mothers  ? 


POUCHED  ANIMALS. 73 

covered  with  hair,  open  their  eyes  and  are  able  to  live  on  other 
food  than  milk.  For  a  long  time  after  they  have  left  this  pouch, 
they  fly  to  it  as  a  place  of  refuge  when  threatened  by  any  danger. 
(Plate  3,  jig.  9.)  In  those  species  that  have  no  pouch,  but  a 
prehensile  tail,  the  young  are  pendant  from  the  belly  of  the 
mother  for  a  certain  time;  then  they  mount  upon  her  back,  and, 
for  the  sake  of  support,  wrap  their  tails  around  hers. 

3.  All  these  animals  which  are  so  intimately  linked  to  each 
other  by  the  manner  in  which  their  young  are  developed,  differ 
very  much  in  other  respects.     In  some,  the  dental  system  is  pre- 
cisely like  that  of  the  intectivora,  and  accordingly,   they   feed 
upon  similar  food ;  in  others,  that  still  possess  the  three  sorts  of 
teeth,  the  molars  are  tuberculous  in  place  of  being  studded  with 
points,  and  hence  their  frugivorous  diet ;  and  there  are  some  that 
want  the  canine  teeth,  which,  if  we  take  this  circumstance  into 
consideration,  should  be  placed  amongst  the  Rodentia,  (Plate  3, 
fig.  12 )     These  animals  also   differ  from   each   other  in  their 
general  form  and  habits. 

4.  The  Marsupialia  have  only  been  found  in  America,  on  some 
of  the  islands  of  the  South  Sea,  and  particularly  in  New  Holland, 
which,  with  some  exceptions,  contains  only  mammiferous  animals 
of  this  order. 

5.  The  order  of  Marsupialia  is  divided  into  six  tribes,  as  follows : 

First  Tribe.  Two  long  canines  in  each  jaw;  several  small  incisors;  molars 
studded  with  points.  (Opossum.) 

Second  Tribe.  The  superior  canines  long  and  pointed,  but  the  inferior 
rudimentary,  or  entirely  wanting;  six  small  incteors  above,  but  only 
two  large  ones  below.  Thumb  large  and  directed  backwards  ;  the 
two  next  fingers  joined  as  far  as  the  nails  (Phalangers.) 

Third  Tribe.  Two  large  incisors  above  with  some  small  ones  adjoining,  and 
two  small  canines;  no  thumb  behind;  paws  very  short.  (Koala.) 

Fourth  Tribe.  Dental  system  nearly  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  tribe; 
no  thumb  on  the  posterior  extremeties  which,  as  well  as  the  tail,  are 
very  long.  (Potoroos.) 

Fifth  Tribe.  Without  canines ;  a  long  vacant  space  between  the  incisors 
and  molars;  several  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw;  posterior  extremities 
and  tail  very  long.  (Kangaroos.) 

Sixth  Tribe.  No  canines;  two  long,  inclosed  incisors  in  each  jaw;  molars 
studded  with  transverse  ridges ;  tail  short.  (Phascolomys.) 

3.  Are  all  Marsupials  alike?     What  is  the  nature  of  their  diet  ?     Is  the 
dental  system  the  same  in  all  Marsupials? 

4.  In  what  parts  of  the  world  ar^  the  Marsupi  ih  found/ 

5.  How  is  the  order  of  Marsupialia  divided?     What  are  the   characters 
which  distinguish  the  Opossum  from  other  Marsupials?     What  are  the  or- 
ganic characters  of  the  Phalangers  ?     By  what  features   can   the  Koala  be 
recognised  ?     What  are  the  characters  of  the  Potoroos  ?     What  are  the  or 
ganic  characters  of  the  Kangaroo  ? 


74 OPOSSUMS.-  PHALANGEKS. 

6.  The  FIRST  TRIBE  of  Marsupials  is  composed  of  animals  that 
are  essentially  insectivorous ;  some  of  them  belong  to  New  Hol- 
land ;  but  the  greatest  number  inhabit  America.     The  last  consti- 
tute the  genus  Opossum, — Sarigiie. 

7.  The  OPOSSUMS  have  the  hind  thumb  perfectly  opposable  to 
the  other  fingers,  which  arrangement  has  obtained  for  them  the 
name  of  Pad'n^ana.     They  have  ten  incisors  above,  eight  below, 
and  fourteen  molars  in  each  jaw,  which,  with  four  canines,  make 
fifty  teeth,  a  greater  number  than   is  possessed  by  any  other 
mammiferous   quadruped.      They    are    nocturnal  animals,  and 
nestle  on  trees  j  they  feed  on  fruits,  dead  meat  and  weaker  ani- 
mals.    There  are  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  species,  all  belonging 
to  America. 

8.  The  Common  Opossum, — Didelphis  Virginiana, —  (Plate  3, 
fiy.  9. ;  is   about  the  size   of  a  cat ;    but  its  coat  gives  it   the 

appearance  of  greater  size.  Its  head  bears  some  resemblance  to 
that  of  a  fox,  with  long,  inanimate  eyes,  and  broad,  translucent 
ears  like  those  of  the  rat.  The  tail  is  round,  and  nearly  a  foot 
long ;  it  is  lightly  covered  with  hair  near  its  root,  but  at  the  ex- 
tremity is  entirely  naked. 

9.  On  the  ground  the  Opossum  is  slow,  and  without  resources, 
but  he  climbs  trees  with  the  greatest  dexterity.     His  food  con- 
sists of  birds  which  he  watches  for,  and  surprises  in  the  foliage. 
He  suspends  himself  by  his  tail,  which  is  muscular  and  flexible, 
and  in  this  position  he  awaits  his  prey  for  several  hours  at  a  time. 

1 0.  All  the  other   Marsupialia  inhabit  New  Holland,  or  the 
neighbouring  islands  ;  among  these  animals  we  will  mention  the 
Phalangers,  Potoroos,  Koalas,  and  Kangaroos. 

11.  The  PHALANGEKS  —  I'halangista, — are  climbers  that  have 
a  large,  opposable  thumb,  and  in  their  general  form  somewhat 
resemble  squirrels.     Some  of  these  Marsupials  have  received  the 
name  of  Flying  Pkalanyers  on  account  of  the  prolongation  of  the 
skin  of  their  flanks  between  their  extremities,  forming  on  each 
side  of  the  body,  a  sort  of  parachute,  by  which  it  is  in  a  degree 
sustained  in  the  air  when  he  leaps  from  one  tree  to  another. 

6.  Upon  what  kind  of  food  do  Marsupials  of  the  first  tribe  live  ?     Where 
are  they  found  ? 

7.  Why  are  Opossums  called  Perfimana  ?  How  many  species  of  Opossum 
arc  known?     Where  do  they  belong?     How  many  teeih  have  they? 

8.  What  is  the  appearance  of  the  common  Opossum  ?     Describe  its  tail  ? 

9.  Is  this  animal  equally  active  in  all  situations  ?     How  does  it  obtain  its 
food? 

10.  Are  Opossums  found  in  New  Holland?     What  Marsupials  are  found 
there  ? 

11.  What  are  Phalangers  ?    What  are  flying  Phalangers  ? 


KOALA.— POTORQO.— KANGAROO.— RODENTIA.  75 

12.  The  KOALAS: — Of  this  tribe  only  one  species  is  known, — 
Koala  Cinerea, — which  inhabits  New  Holland.     It  has  a  short, 
stout  body,  short  legs  and  no  tail.     The  toes  of  the  fore  feet,  five 
in  number,  when  about  to  seize  any  object,  separate  into  two 
groups  ;  the  thumb  and  index  on  one  side,  and  the  remaining  three 
on  the  other.     It  passes  one  part  of  its  life  in  trees,  and  the  other 
in  burrows  at  their  foot. 

13.  The  POTOROOS, — Hypsiprymnm:—  Of  this  tribe  only   one 
species  is  known.     It  inhabits  New  Holland,  and  is  described  by 
most  authors  under  the  name  of  the  Kanyaroo-rat.     It  has  a  long 
powerful  tail,  and  the  two  first  toes  of  the  hind  feet  are  united  as 
in  the  kangaroos.     It  is  frugivorous. 

14.  The    KANGAROOS, — Habitat urvs,— (Plate   3,   fig.  11.)  are 
herbivorous  animals,  very  remarkable  for  the  smallness  of  their 
fore  paws,  the  length  of  their  hind  legs  and  tail,  upon  which  they 
sit  vertically  as  on  a  tripod.     By  the  assistance  of  these  great 
paws  they  leap  very  well,  and  there  is  one  species  known  that  can 
clear  a  space  of  twenty  feet  at  a  single  bound.     The  disposition 
of  the  nail  of  the  middle  toe  of  the  hind  feet,  makes  them  some- 
what resemble  ungulate  mammals,  for  it  is  very  large  and  almost 
in   the  form  of  a  hoof.     They  inhabit  New   Holland,  and  the 
neighbouring  Islands.     One  species  called  the  Giant  Kangaroo, 
stands  about  six  feet  high. 


ORDER     OF     RODENTIA. 

15.  The  RODENTIA  or  gnawers,  are  easily  distinguished  from  all 
other  unguiculate  mammals  without  mammary  pouches,  by  the 
arrangement  of  their  teeth,  which  correspond  to  the  nature  of 
their  food.  These  animals  have  no  canine  teeth,  and  there  is  a 
vacant  space  between  the  incisor  and  molar  teeth.  (Plate  4  fig.  6.) 
The  first  are  remarkable  for  their  strength,  their  length,  their 
arched  form,  and  the  lozenge  shape  of  their  cutting  edge ;  their 
number  is  almost  always  two  in  each  jaw,  and  their  anterior 
surface  is  ordinarily  tinged,  of  a  more  or  less  deep  yellow  colour. 
The  molar  teeth  have  a  large,  flat  crown,  traversed  by  raised 

12.  What  are  Koalas  ? 

13.  What  are  Potoroos  ? 

14.  What  are  Kangaroos  ?     To  what  pnrt  of  the  world  do  they  belong  ? 

15.  How  are  the  Rodentia  distinguished?     What  are  the  cha  acters  of 
their  canine   teeth  ?     What  is  their  number  ?     What  is  the  co'our  of  the 
canine  teeth?     What  are  the  characteis  of  the  molar  teeth  of  gnawers? 
How  is  the  lower  jaw  attached  to  the  cranium  ?     What  circumstance  has 
given  the  name  to  this  order  of  animals  ? 

7* 


76  RODENTIA. 


lines,  which  renders  their  surface  like  that  of  a  mill-stone.  Finally, 
the  lower  jaw  of  these  animals,  in  place  of  being  articulated  with 
the  cranium  by  a  transverse  condyle,  (like  that  in  the  carnaria,) 
is  joined  to  it  by  a  longitudinal  condyle,  which  only  permits 
motion  forwards  and  backwards :  on  this  account,  these  animals 
cannot  use  their  teeth  either  for  tearing  flesh  or  even  cutting  the 
substances  upon  which  they  feed,  and  they  are  forced,  therefore, 
to  file  them  as  it  were,  in  order  to  reduce  them  by  continual 
labour  to  very  delicate  particles,  and  it  is  from  this  circumstance, 
they  have  obtained  their  name  of  gnawers  or  rodeutia. 

16.  In  conformity  to  this  mode  of  organization,  the  gnawers 
must  necessarily  be  designed  to  feed  chiefly  upon  vegetable  sub- 
stances ;  some  of  them  are  omnivorous  (rats,  (or  example  ;)  but, 
for  the  most  part,  they  live  upon  fruits,  herbs,  barks  or  roots. 

17.  Most  of  these  animals  are  of  small  stature,  and  in  general, 
their  hind  paws  are  much  longer  than  the  fore,  so  that  they  rather 
leap  than  walk.     The  hare  affords  us  an  example  of  this  arrange- 
ment, which,  in  some  other  gnawers,  (the  Jerboas,)  is  carried  so 
far  that  the  animal  only  uses  his  hind  paws  to  leap  with,  and  to 
rest  upon.     (Plate  4.fg.  11.) 

18.  As    regards   intelligence,  the  Rodentia  are,  in  general, 
less  favoured  by  nature  than  the  quadrumana  and  carnaria,  and 
it  is   remarked  that  their  brain  is  less  developed  and  presents 
scarcely  any  convolutions.     Nevertheless,  we  find  in  this  order 
those  mammalia  whose  instinctive  faculties  are  most  admirable, 
as  we  shall  see  when  we  treat  of  the  castors,  and  squirrels. 

19.  This  order  is  composed  of  several  small  tribes,  the  most 
important  of  which,  with  their  distinctive  characters,  are  indicated 
in  the  following  table:  in  which  it  will  be  perceived,  they  are 
all  arranged  in  two  principal  sections,  according  as  they  possess 
a  perfect,  or  an  imperfect  clavicle :  the  first  section  has  been 
called  Rodentia  with  clavicles ;  and  the  second,  Rodentia  with 
imperfect  clavicles : 

16.  What  is  the  general  food  of  the  Rodentia  ?     Does  their   organization 
indicate  the  kind  of  food  on  vvhicli  they  live  .' 

17.  What  is  the  general  mode  of  progression  amongst  Roden'.ia?     How  is 
their  mode  of  progression  accounted  for  ? 

18.  What  decree   of  intelligence  is   pos?e-scd  by  the  Rodenlia  compared 
with  other  animals  ?     What  is  the  comparative  clcvclopenienl  of  tlieir  brain  ? 

19.  (Answered  in  the  table.)  How  is  the  order  Rocieniia  divided?     What 
is  the  composition   of  the   teeth  of  Squirrels   and  Rats?     Have   they  any 
clavicles  ?     What  numb*  r  of  toes  have  Castors  1     What  tribes  of  this  order 
have  no  clavicle,  or  only  a  very  short  one?     What  tribes  of  tliis  order  have 
molar  teeth  without  roots?     What  tribes  of  this  order  have  molar  teeth  with 
roots  ?     In  what  tribt?s  do  the  molar  teeth  cease  growing  when    completely 
formed  ?     In  what  tribes  do  the  molar  teeth  continue  to  glow  through  life  ? 


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78  SQUIRRELS. 


Tribe  of  Squirrels. 

20.  The  squirrels  are  recognised  by  their  long,  bushy  tail,  and 
by  their  lower  incisor  teeth,  which  are  very  much  compressed. 
(Plate  k.jig.  7.)     Their  head  is  large,  their  eyes  projecting  and 
animated,  and  their  form  light ;  their  anterior  extremities,  which 
often  serve  them  for  conveying  food  to  the  mouth,  are  sustained  by 
strong  clavicles,  and  are  provided  with  only  four  fingers  which 
are  armed  with  hooked  nails,  while  the  posterior  extremities  have 
five.     These  animals,  which  are  remarkable  for  their  agility,  live 
on  trees  and  feed  upon  fruits. 

21.  They  are  divided  into  Squirrels  properly  so  called,  Flying- 
Squirrels,  fyc. 

22.  SQUIRRELS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Sciurus, — have  the  hairs 
of  the  tail  directed  from  the  sides,  giving  it  some  resemblance  to 
a  large  feather.     There  are  many  species  on  both  continents ;  in 
France,  the  Common  Squirrel,  — Sciurus  Vulgaris, — is  met  with 
in  great  numbers,  and  in  the  climate  of  that  region,  preserves  its 
colours  (a  lively  red  on  the  back,  and  white  on  the  belly  ;)  but  in 
the  north,  during  the  winter,  it  acquires  a  beautiful  bluish  ash 
colour,  (producing  the  fur  called  minever,  when  taken  from  the 
back  only,  and  vair  by  the  French— when  it  consists  of  the  whole 
skin.)     Sometimes  there  are  black  squirrels ;  less  frequently  snow 
white  with  red  eyes ;  and  more  rarely  still,  spotted  with  black 
and  white. 

23.  These  lively,  graceful   little  animals  inhabit  the  forests, 
and  make  their  nests  upon  the  highest  parts  of  the  loftiest  trees  ; 
they  build  them  in  a  spherical  form,  of  flexible  twigs  and  moss, 
and  leave  an  opening  in  the  upper  part,  taking  the  precaution  to 
cover  it  with  a  sort  of  conical  roof,  which  prevents  the  ingress  of 
rain.     In  this  nest  they  pass  a  part  of  the  day :  they  sally  forth 
in  the  evening,  at  which  time  they  are  gay,  jumping  from  branch 
to  branch,  and  uttering  a  pretty  sharp  whistle.     During  the  sum- 
mer, squirrels  are  occupied  in  making  provision  for  the  winter ; 
it  is  remarked  that  they  have  a  great  propensity  to  hide  what 
ever  food   may  remain  after  feeding.     The  trunk  of  a  hollow 
tree  is  their  usual  store-house,  to  which  they  recur   when  the 
fruits  upon  which  they  feed  grow  scarce ;  they  know  how  to  dis- 

20.  How  are  Sqninels  recognised  ?    How  many  toes,  or  fingers  have  they 
on  the  fore,  and  how  many  on  the  hind  paws  ?     What  do  Squirrels  feed  on  ? 

21.  How  is  the  tribe  of  Squirrels  divided  ? 

22.  What  is  minever? 

23.  What  are  the  habits  of  Squirrels  ?  Wheie  and  how  do  they  build  their 
nests  ?    Are  their  limbs  all  of  the  same  length  ?     What  is  the  character  of 
their  voice  ? 


__ FLYING   SQUIRRELS. 79 

cover  their  depot  when  under  the  snow,  which  they  remove  with 
their  paws,  and  their  instinct  teaches  them  not  to  put  all  they 
gather  into  the  same  place  :  ordinarily  they  make  several  store- 
houses, and  when  one  is  discovered  and  robbed,  or  exhausted, 
they  recur  to  the  others.  By  their  address  and  agility  alone,  they 
succeed  in  eluding  their  enemies.  The  moment  they  are  apprised 
of  their  approach  by  any  extraordinary  noise,  they  leave  their 
nest,  and  through  the  assistance  of  their  nails,  which  enables 
them  to  adhere  to  the  bark  of  trees,  we  see  them,  in  order  to 
escape  from  the  object  of  their  dread,  place  the  thickness  of  a 
branch  between  it  and  themselves,  which  makes  it  difficult  to  see 
them,  if  one  is  perceived  by  them  ;  when  we  go  around  the  tree 
to  get  to  the  same  side  upon  which  they  are,  they  at  once  pass  to 
the  opposite,  and  if  their  fear  becomes  still  greater,  they  cover 
themselves  betwixt  two  branches  and  lie  motionless.  These 
animals  are  extremely  clean  in  their  habits ;  they  never  soil  their 
nests,  and  they  are  continually  polishing  their  hairs  with  their 
fore  paws,  which  they  employ  for  many  other  purposes :  it  is 
with  these,  they  convey  food  to  the  mouth,  and  pluck  the  moss 
with  which  they  build  their  nests :  in  some  instances  they  can 
oppose  their  rudimentary  thumb  with  which  they  are  provided 
to  their  fingers,  so  that  their  paws  perform  the  offices  of  hands. 
The  great  length  of  their  hind  legs  makes  them  excellent  leapers  ; 
on  the  ground  their  progression  is  effected  altogether  by  leaping  ; 
and  to  rest,  they  sit  upon  their  hind  legs,  elevating  the  tail  and 
spreading  it  over  their  head  as  a  kind  of  canopy.  It  is  said  that 
they  avail  themselves  of  a  piece  of  bark  for  a  boat,  and  use  the 
tail  as  a  sail  when  they  wish  to  cross  a  stream ;  but  we  may  be 
permitted  to  believe  that  a  stream,  even  for  a  free  squirrel,  when 
uninfluenced  by  the  fear  of  danger,  will  always  be  a  barrier  that 
he  will  never  attempt  to  pass ;  and  if  he  were  forced  through 
fear  to  plunge  into  the  water,  swimming  would  be  his  only  re- 
source. The  voice  of  the  squirrel  is  a  sharp  cry,  and  sometimes 
he  utters  a  feeble  sound,  although  his  mouth  be  shut,  which  is 
said  to  be  a  sign  of  impatience  or  anger. 

24.  The  FLYING  SGIUIRRELS, — Pteromyft, — (winged  rat) — (Plate 
4,  Jig.  8.)  have  on  each  side  of  the  body  a  prolongation  of  the 
skin,  which  extends  between  the  fore  and  hind  legs,  and  forms  a 
sort  of  parachute,  by  the  aid  of  which,  these  animals  can  sustain 
themselves  in  the  air  for  a  few  seconds  and  make  extended  leaps. 
One  species  is  found  in  the  forests  of  Poland  and  Russia,  and  one 
in  North  America. 


24.  What  peculiarity  characterises  Flying  Squirrels  ?  ,  Where  are   they 
found  ? 


80 MARMOTS— DORMICE. 

Tribe  of  Hals. 

25.  The  tribe  of  Rats  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  small 
Rodentia  which  resemble  our  common  rats  in  the  most  impor- 
tant parts   of  their  organization,  and  are  the  most  carnivorous 
animals  of  this   order.     Their  fore  paws  are  in  general  termi- 
nated by  four  toes  which  are  well  developed,  and  a  tubercle  rep- 
resenting a    rudimentary  thumb ;  on  the  posterior  extremities 
there  are  five  complete  toes.     Most  of  them  live  in  holes. 

26.  The  principal  genera  of  this  group  are,  the  Marmot,  the 
Dormouse,  the  Rat  properly  so  called,  and  tne  Hamster. 

27.  The  Marmots — Arctomys, — (bear-rat,)  or  mountain  rats, 
(Plate  4,  /?</.  9.)  differ  in  many  respects  from  the  other  gnawers 
of  the  tribe  of  rats  ;  like  the  squirrels,  they  have  five  molar  teeth 
above  and  four  below,  all  studded   with  points  ;  some  of  these 
animals  feed  on  insects  as  well  as  herbs.     Their  form  is   heavy 
and  squat ;  the  head  is  flat  and  thick,  the  ears  round,  the  limbs 
short  and  stout,  the  tail  small,  and  their  coat  thick  and  coarse. 
Their  walk  is  clumsy,  and  they  run  badly,  but  they  can  flatten 
themselves  so  as  to  pass  through  narrow  openings.     They  dig 
with  readiness  a  deep  hole  into  which  many  individuals  retire 
during  winter,  a  season  which  they  pass  in  profound  lethargy, 
covered  in  a  bed  of  hay.     On  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  they 
close  their  hole  by  heaping  up  earth  at  its  entrance ;  they  are 
then  very  fat,  and  their  fat  serves  for  their  nutrition  during  their 
lethargy.     They  do  not  store  provisions,  and  never  wander  far 
from  this  hole.     They  live  socially,  and  when  the  troop  is  out, 
they  place  a  sentinel  upon  some  elevated  point  to  give  notice  of 
the  approach  of  danger. 

28.  The  Common  Marmot, — Arctomys  »0lpiniis, — is  found  in 
the  Alps,  just  below  the  region  of  perpetual  snow.     The  moun- 
taineers go  in  the  winter  to  take  them  in  their  holes ;  they  eat 
them  and  sell   their  skins,  at  a  low  price,  for  common  fur ;  it  is 
this  fur  which  the  little  Savoyards  who   beg  their  way  in  some 
European  towns,  often  carry  with  them.     It  is  about  the  size  of  a 
hare,  and  its  coat  is  yellowish  gray. 

29.  DORMICE, — Myoxvs, — (rat  with  a  pointed  nose,)  are  pretty 
little  animals  with  soft  fur,  a  hairy,  or  even  tufted  tail,  and  ani- 
mated look,  which,  like  squirrels,  live  on  trees  and  feed  on  fruits. 

25.  How  is  the  tribe  of  Rats  constituted  ? 

26.  What  are  the  principal  genera  of  the  tribe  of  Rats  ? 

27.  What  are  Marmots?     What  are  their  habits?     Do  they  hibernate  ? 

28.  Where  is  the  common  Marmot  found  ? 

29.  What  are  Dormice  ?     What  are  their  habits  ?     How  are  they  distin. 
guished  ? 


DORMICE.— RATS.  81 


Like  the  Marmots,  they  pass  the  cold  season  in  a  deep  lethargic 
sleep,  rolled  up  in  a  ball.  They  may  be  recognised  by  the  number 
of  their  molar  teeth,  which  is  four  on  both  sides  of  each  jaw. 

30.  The  Common  Dormouse,— Myoxus   Glis, — (the  fat   Dor- 
mouse,) which  is  about  the  size  of  the  common  rat,  inhabits   the 
southern  parts  of  Europe ;  it  lives  in  the  great  forests,  and  in  the 
hollows  of  trees  and  rocks  constructs  a  retreat  which  it  lines  with 
moss,  and  in  which  it  deposites  provisions  to  be  ready  when  it 
awakes  in  the  spring.     In  some  parts  of  Italy  it  feeds  on  small 
animals ;  the  Romans  raised  and  fattened  this  species  for  the 
table. 

31.  The    Garden   Dormouse, — Myoxus   Nitela, — is   another 
species  which  is  common  in  the   neighbourhood  of  Paris.     It 
frequents   espaliers,  (hedge-rows  of  fruit  trees)  and  retires  into 
cavities  in  orchard  walls ;  its  food  consists  of  fruits,  and  it  some- 
times commits  great  ravages. 

32.  Another  species  of  Dormouse, — Myoxus  .fluellanarius, — is 
of  the  size  of  a  small  mouse,  and  inhabits  the  borders  of  woods, 
hedges,  &c.;  like  the  squirrel,  it  prepares  a  bed  of  moss  for  the 
winter. 

33.  RATS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED,  are  distinguished  by  the  disposi- 
tion of  their  molar  teeth,  which  are  three  throughout,  and  by  the 
long,  hard  tail.     These  animals  are  of  small  size,  and  feed  chiefly 
on  vegetable  substances  (such  as  grains  and  roots,)  but  they  also 
eat  animal  matter,  and  when  forced  by  hunger,  they  mingle  in 
fierce  battle  and  devour  each  other.     There  are  three  species 
which  are  common  in  houses,  the  Domestic  Rat,  the  Surmulot,  and 
the  Mouse. 

34.  The  Domestic  Rat, — Mvs  Rattus, — was  not  known  to  the 
ancients,  and  appears  to  be  originally  from  America.    The  time  of 
its  introduction  into  Europe  is  not  known,  but  it  is  ascertained 
that  it  existed  in  great  numbers  in  the  places  which  the  Surmulot 
now  occupies  after  having  almost  entirely  destroyed  its  species. 
The  domestic  rat  has  become  quite  rare  in  Paris,  and  is  not  often 
found  except  on  farms  where  it  feeds  on  grain,  meal,  fruits,    and 
vegetables  of  all  kinds  that  it  meets.     Its  taste  for  animal  matter 
is  very  decided,  and  it  pursues  small  animals.     In  country  houses 

30.  Where  is  the  common  Dormouse  found  ?     What  are  its  habi's  ?     Was 
it  known  to  the  ancients? 

3J.  Where  is  the  garden  Dormouse  found  ?     What  does  it  feed  on? 

32.  Is  there  any  other  species  than  the  two  mentioned  ? 

33.  What  are  Ruts  properly  so  called  ?     What  do  they    feed   on  ?     How 
many  species  of  Rats  are  common  in  houses  ? 

34.  Was  the  Domestic  Rat  known  to  the  ancients  ?    When  was  it  intro- 
duced into  Europe  ? 


RATS.— MICE. 


where  it  propagates,  it  is  really  a  scourge  by  the  damage  it  occa- 
sions by  eating  linen,  leather  harness,  bacon,  in  a  word,  every 
thing  that  falls  in  its  way. 

35.  The  Simnulof,  -  Mm  Dwumanvs, — (the  Norway  or  Brown 
rat,)  is  the  largest  of  the  rats ;  it  is  seven  inches  long,   without 
including  the  tail,  and  its  coat  is  reddish  brown.     Though  very 
abundant  in   Europe  at  the  present  day,  it  was  not  introduced  < 
there  till  sometime  in  the  eighteenth  century.     Vessels  trading  to 
India  carried  it  to  England,  whence  it  found  its  way  into  France 
and  all  other  parts  of  Europe,  America,  and  wherever  Europeans 
have  settled  colonies.     About  the  environs  of  Paris,  brown  rats 
are  very  numerous  on  the  commons,  and  particularly  on  the  voirie 
of  Montfaucon,    where,  towards  evening,   they   may   be   seen 
entirely  covering  the  carcasses  of  horses  that  have  succumbed 
during  the  day  ;  they  are  also  found  in  the  sewers  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  markets,  and  in  all  places  where  animal  substances 
in  a  state  of  decomposition  are  accumulated  in  any  quantity,  and 
where  grain  is  abundant.     They  dig  holes  scarcely  deep  enough 
to  hold  their  bodies.* 

36.  The  Mouse, —  Mux  Hlusculu$,  —  \s  the  smallest  species  of 
rat  that  inhabits  our  dwellings,  and  it  is  the  only    one  that  was 
known  to  the  ancients.     In  the  wood-work  of  our  houses,  and  in 
old  walls  where  the  plaster  is  easily  detached,  these  little  animals 
excavate  galleries  of  greater  or  less  length,  in  which  they  habitu- 
ally dwell ;  they  feed  on  all  articles  whether  animal  or  vegetable, 
that  fall  in  their  way,  and  are  particularly  fond  of  tallow,  bacon, 
and  other   fat   substances.      Sometimes  they  are  found  wild  in 
the  woods,  where  they  feed  chiefly  on  acorns  and  beech-nuts. 

37.  The  J/ii/o/,  or  field-mouse,— Mus  Syloaticus,—\s  a  species 
of  the  same  genus  as  the  preceding,  which  is  intermediate   in 
size  between  the  rat  and  the  mouse,  but  it  does  not  visit  the 
habitations  of  man  ;  its  ordinary  dwelling  place  is  in  forests  where 
it  often  commits  considerable  havoc,  either  in  digging  up  the  acorns 

*  The  voirie  of  Montftuoon,  or  commons,  is  the  place  where  the  filth  of 
the  city  of  Paris  is  deposited,  and  where  dead  animals  are  flayed  for  the  sake 
of  their  skin?,  and  the  purls  which  are  fit  for  the  manufacture  of  glue,  &c 
It  has  been  said,  with  what  truth  we  do  not  know,  that  the  rats  found  hero, 
were  killed,  and  sold  to  the  masters  of  eating-houses,  who  served  them  to 
their  customers. 

35.  What   is   the   Surmulol?     Was  this  rat  always  known  in  Europe  1 
Where  is  it  originally  from  ?     Where  does  it  most  abound  1    What  does  this 
rat  feed  on  1 

36.  What  is  the  Mouse  1    Where  does  it  dwell  1    What  does  it  feed  upon 
when  wild? 

3?    What  is  the  Mulot?    What  are  its  habits? 


__ HAMSTERS.— FIELDMICE. 83 

or  beech-nuts  that  have  been  planted,  or  by  gnawing  the  bark  of 
young  trees.  It  also  does  considerable  damage  to  the  harvest,  in 
company  with  the  true  field  mouse,  by  cutting  the  stocks  of  the 
corn  (wheat,  &c.)  to  eat  a  few  grains  and  waste  the  rest.  These 
animals  also  store  provisions,  acorns,  filberts,  chestnuts, &c..,  which 
they  deposite  in  holes  in  the  ground  about  a  foot  deep,  concealed 
by  some  bushes. 

38.  The  HAMSTERS  have  nearly  the  same  teeth  as  the  rats ;  but 
their  tail  is  short  and  hairy,  and  both  sides  of  the   mouth  are 
hollowed  into  sacs  or  cheek-pouches,  like  certain  monkeys,   in 
which  they  carry  Ihe  grain  upon  which  they  feed. 

39.  The    Common    Hamster, — Cricetns  Vvlgttfis, — (Plate   4, 
jig.  10.)  is  larger  than  the  rat,  reddish  gray  above,  black  on  the 

flanks  and  underneath,  with  three  whitish  spots  on  each  side.  It 
feeds  on  roots  and  all  the  cereal  grains  cultivated  by  man ;  it  can 
however,  live  on  flesh,  and  when  pressed  by  hunger  does  not  even 
spare  its  own  species.  It  digs  a  hole  with  two  galleries ;  an 
oblique  one,  to  carry  out  the  riddance  of  the  earth,  and  a  per- 
pendicular one  for  the  entrance  and  exit  of  the  animal ;  these 
channels  lead  to  different  circular  excavations  which  communicate 
with  each  other  by  horizontal  tunnels  or  galleries:  one  of  these 
chambers  is  furnished  with  a  bed  of  dry  herbs  which  serves  for 
the  retreat  of  the  animal,  and  the  others  are  designed  to  contain 
provisions  which  are  collected  in  the  warm  season  for  the  winter's 
use.  This  animal  lives  solitary,  but  is  numerous  in  Germany 
and  different  sandy  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia.  It  is  injurious  to 
farmers  on  account  of  the  quantity  of  grain  it  collects, 

Tribe  of  Fieldmice. 

40.  This  little  group  is  nearly  related  to  that  of  the  rats ;  their 
external  form  is  nearly  the  same,  but  their  molar  teeth  possess  a 
peculiar  conformation,  which  approaches  to  that  of  essentially  her- 
bivorous animals.     In  this  tribe  are  placed  Fieldmice  properly  so 
called,  Lemmings,  8fc, 

41.  FIELDMICE   properly  so   called, — rfrcicnla, — have  a    squat 
form,  the  same  number  of  toes  as  rats,  armed  with  hooked  nails  fit 
for  digging,  and  the  tail  is  hairy  and  about  the  length  of  the  body. 
There  are  several  species  known  in  France.     The  Campayn.nl, — 

38.  How  are  Hamsters  distinguished  ? 

39.  What  are   the   characters  of  the  common  .Hamster  ?     What  does  it 
eat?     What  are  its  habits?     What  is  the  character  of  its  burrows  or  habi- 
tations ? 

40.  How  does  the  tribe  of  Fieldmice  differ  from  that  of  Rats? 

41.  How  are  Fieldmice  properly  so  called  characterised  ?      What  is  the 
Campagnol  ? 

8 


84     LEMMINGS.— JERBOAS.-.RAT.MOLES.-.CHINCHILLAS. 

Jirvicola  rfrralis, — (Mus  Arvalis,)  or  little  field-rat,  is  improperly 
called  Mulot  in  some  provinces.  It  is  of  the  size  of  the  mouse, 
and  inhabits  holes  which  it  digs  in  the  fields.  Sometimes  it  is 
excessively  multiplied,  and  commits,  as  well  as  the  Mulot,  great 
ravages. 

42.  The  Water  Raf, — Mus  Amphibiiis, — is  also  a  species  of 
Jlri-icnla  ;  it  is  rather  larger  than  the  common  rat,  and  inhabits 
the  banks  of  streams,  but  it  neither  swims  nor  dives  well. 

43  The  LEMMINGS, —  (*eorychns, — (Mus  Lemmus  of  Linnaeus,) 
another  species  of  fieldmouse  which  is  found  in  Siberia,  are 
celebrated  for  the  distant  migrations  they  make  every  year  in 
numerous  troops ;  they  are  small  Rodentia  that  inhabit  the  shores 
of  the  Icy  Ocean,  and  travel  in  numerous  bands,  laying  waste 
every  thing  that  comes  in  their  way.  They  are  of  the  size  of 
the  rat,  and  their  colour  varies  from  yellow  to  black. 

Tribe  of  Jerboas. 

44.  This  tribe  consists  of  a  small  number  of  gnawers  that  con- 
siderably resemble  the  rats.     The  tail  is  long  and  tufted  at  the 
end :  but  they  are  most  remarkable  in  their  posterior  extremities, 
which,  in  comparison  with  the  anterior,  are  of  a  most  immoderate 
length.  (Plate  4,  fig.  11.)     They  are  met  with  from   Barbary  to 
the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea. 

Tribe  of  K  at- Moles. 

45.  The  Rodentia  included  in  this  division  (Sp'alax.)  resem- 
ble the  Moles  both  in  their  habits  and  external  form ;  they  are 
essentially  diggers,  and  live  under  ground ;  they  feed  on  roots 
only. 

Tribe  of  Chinchillas. 

46.  The  Chinchillas  are  small  Rodentia  of  South  America,  that 
afford   a   most  beautiful  and  much  esteemed  fur,   which   were 
nevertheless,  unknown  to  naturalists,  until  modern  times.     In 
many  respects  they  are  intermediate  between  the  Field  mice  and 
Hares.     Several  species  are  known,     The  Chinchilla  I^aniyera 
is  the  only  one  whose  fur  is  esteemed ;  it  inhabits  the  mountains 
of  Peru  and  Chile.     [This  animal  is  smaller  than  the  rabbit,  and 
its  head,  which  is  ornamented  with  long  mustaches,  resembles 

42.  What  is  the  Water  Rat  ? 

43.  What  are  Lemmings?     What  are  their  habits? 

44.  What  are  Jerboas  ?     Where  are  they  found  ? 

45.  Whut  animals  are  included  in  the  tribe  of  Rat-Moles  ? 

46.  What  are  Chinchillas'     Where  are  they  found?     For  what  arc  they 
valued  ?     How  are  they  taken  ?     Are  they  abundant  ? 


BEAVERS.  85 


that  of  the  squirrel.  Its  ears  are  large  ;  its  paws  are  delicate,  and 
differ  little  in  length  ;  its  coat  which  is  of  a  beautiful  gray,  undu- 
lated with  white  above,  and  of  a  bright  gray  underneath,  is  com- 
posed of  extremely  tine,  soft  hair ;  and  its  tail  is  blackish,  par- 
ticularly at  its  end.  It  lives  in  burrows  and  feeds  principally  on 
bulbous  roots.  It  is  hunted  with  dogs  trained  to  drag  it  from  its 
hole  without  injuring  its  coat  It  is  found,  especially  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood  of  Coquimbo  and  Copiapo,  and  its  fur  is  sent  to  San- 
tiago and  Valparaiso,  whence  it  is  exported  to  Europe  and  the 
United  States ;  but  it  has  been  hunted  so  actively,  that  for  some- 
time, it  has  been  scarcely  seen,  and  in  order  to  prevent  the  total 
destruction  of  the  race,  the  pursuit  of  the  animal  has  been  pro- 
hibited.] 

Tribe  of  Castors. 

47.  The  Rodentia  which  form  this  tribe,  are  distinguished  by 
the  conformation  of  their  teeth,  by  their  essentially  aquatic  mode 
of  life,  by  their  feet  having  five  toes,  and  the  hind  ones  being 
palmate.     They  are  divided  into  two  genera,  the  most  important 
of  which  is  that  of  CASTORS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED. 

48.  BEAVERS,  or  CASTORS  properly  so  called,  are  distinguished 
from  all  other  Rodentia  by  their  horizontally  flattened  tail,  which  is 
nearly  of  an  oval  form,  and  covered  with  scales.  (Plate  4,  /z</  12.) 

49.  Beavers  are  large  animals  whose  mode  of  life  is  entirely 
aquatic,  their  feet  and  tail  enabling  them  to  swim  well:  they  feed 
chiefly  on  bark  and  other  hard  substances,  and  they  make  use  of 
their  strong  incisor  teeth  for  cutting  all  kinds  of  trees. 

50.  The    Beaver,— Cantor  fiber,— (Plate  4,  fg.   12.)  Of  all 
quadrupeds  bestows  most  time  and  labour  on  the  construction  of 
his  dwelling,  at  which  he  works  in  company,  in  the  most  solitary 
parts  of  North  America,  from  the  thirtieth  to  the  sixtieth  degree 
of  north  latitude.     He  is  also  met  with  in   Siberia,  Norway,  Ger- 
many, and  in  France  on  the  banks  of  the  Rhone  and  Garonne. 

51.  These  animals  are  always  found  in  the  vicinity  of  rivers 
and  lakes  ;  in  the  summer  they  inhabit  burrows  which  they  dig 
along  the  shores,  but  in  winter  they  retire  into  huts,  constructed 
with  the  greatest  care,  on  the  banks  or  in  the  midst  of  waters. 
In  general,  they  select  situations  where  the  waters  are  so  deep 
that  they  do  not  freeze  to  the  bottom,  and  prefer  running  water, 

47.  How  are  animals  of  the  tribe  of  Castors  distinguished  ? 

48.  How  are  Beavers  distinguished  from  other  Rodentia  ? 

49.  What  is  the  mode  of  life  of  Beavers?     What  is  their  food? 

50.  For  what  is  the  Beaver  remarkable  ?     In  what  parts  of  the  world  ia 
the  Beaver  found  ? 

51.  How  do  they  dwell  ?    How  do  they  build  their  huts  ? 


86  BEAVERS. 


because  they  cut  the  wood  necessary  for  their  building  above  the 
spot  where  they  work,  and  then  the  current  carries  it  where  it 
is  required.  If  the  water  is  stagnant,  they  at  once  commence 
their  houses;  but  if  it  is  running,  they  assemble  often  two  or  three 
hundred  in  a  gang,  and  first  form  a  shelving  dam  or  dyke,  to 
maintain  the  water  at  an  equal  height :  this  dam  is  formed  of 
branches  interlaced  with  each  other,  the  intervals  of  which  are 
filled  with  stones  and  mud,  and  plastered  over  with  a  thick  solid 
coat;  it  is  commonly  ten  or  twelve  feet  thick  at  the  base,  and  is 
sometimes  of  very  considerable  extent.  At  the  expiration  of  a  few 
years  it  is  usually  covered  with  vegetation  and  thus  converted 
into  a  substantial  hedge.  The  dam  being  finished,  they  separate 
into  small  parties  of  two  or  three  families,  and  set  about  con- 
structing their  huts,  which  are  built  against  the  dam  in  the  same 
manner,  but  with  less  solidity ;  each  hut  accommodates  two  or 
three  families ;  it  has  two  stones,  the  upper  one  being  dry  for  the 
residence  of  the  animals,  and  the  lower  one  under  water,  for  the 
store  of  bark  upon  which  they  feed.  Only  the  latter  opens  ex- 
ternally, and  the  entrance  is  entirely  under  water.  Their  work 
is  carried  on  in  the  night  only,  but  with  astonishing  rapidity. 
When  the  season  of  snow  approaches,  the  Castors  assemble  in 
great  numbers  and  set  about  repairing  the  huts  which  they 
had  abandoned  in  the  spring,  or  construct  new  ones.] 

52.  [Beavers,  whose  coat  is  ordinarily  of  a  uniform  reddish 
brown,  but  sometimes  of  a  beautiful  black  and  at  others  white, 
are  provided  with  a  great  abundance  of  a  grayish,  soft  down  of  ex- 
treme fineness,  which  is  concealed  beneath  long  silky  hairs,  which 
resisting  the  water,  or  not  becoming  wet,  protects  them  against 
cold  and  humidity ;  but  this  fur,  which  is  so  useful  to  them,  often 
becomes  the  cause  of  their  destruction  ;  because  it   is  of  great 
use  to  man,  and  to  procure  it  these  animals  are  actively  pursued. 

53.  Beaver  skins  are  an  important  article  of  commerce ;  they 
are  used  as  fur,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  hats;  the  most  beau- 
tiful are  from  those  animals  that  are  killed  in  winter  in  the  coldest 
parts  of  North  America.     A  single  skin  furnishes  about  a  pound 
and  a  half  of  down  which,  in  France,  is  worth  from   thirty-five 
to  forty  dollars  the  pound.     As  many  as  one  hundred  and  fifty- 
thousand  of  these  skins  have  been  imported  into  Europe  in  a 
single  year. 

54.  Castoreum,  an  article  of  commerce  also  furnished  by  these 
animals,  is  a  solid,  fragile  substance  of  a  strong  nauseous  odour. 

52.  What  is  the  colour  of  the  Beaver  ?     Why  are  Beavers  hunted  ? 

53.  What  is  the  use  of  Beaver  skins  ?    Are  they  cheap  ? 

54.  What  is  Castoreum? 


PORCUPINES.  87 


It  is  sold  in  the  pouch  in  which  it  is  naturally  formed.  A  Castor 
furnishes  about  two  ounces.  The  women  of  some  savage  tribes 
use  it  to  grease  their  hair,  and  in  Europe,  and  the  United  States, 
it  is  employed  as  a  medicine.  About  three  thousand  pounds  are 
annually  imported  into  France.] 

Tribe  of  Porcupines. 

55.  Animals  of  the  tribe  of  Porcupines  are  recognised  at  first 
sight  by  the  stiff  and  pointed  quills  or  spines  with  which  their  back 
is  armed,  and  from  this  peculiarity  they  somewhat  resemble  the 
Hedgehogs.     Their  grunting  voice  and  thick  truncated  muzzle 
have  caused  them  to  be  compared  to  the  hog,  and  hence  their 
French  name,  Pores-Epics. 

56.  PORCUPINES  PROPER, — Hystrix, — have  an  arched  or  more 
or  less  convex  head.     They  have  four  toes  before  and  five  be- 
hind, all  armed  with  stout  nails.     There  are  many  species  known. 
The  European   Porcupine, — Hystrix   Cristata, — has  very   long 
spines  annulated  black  and  white;  a  mane  composed  of  long 
hairs  occupies  the  head  and  back  of  the  neck.  The  tail  is  short,  and 
furnished  with  hollow  truncated  tubes  or  bristles,  suspended  to 
slender  tubercles,  which  make  a  noise  when  shaken  by  the  animal. 

57.  This  animal  avoids  inhabited  places,  and  selects  for  its  re- 
treat stony  arid  hillocks  with  a  southern  or  southeastern  exposure, 
in  the  declivities  of  which,  it  excavates  deep  holes  with  many  out- 
lets, where  it  lives  in  profound  solitude  and  great  security.     It 
passes  the  day  concealed  at  the  bottom  of  its  burrow,  and  pro- 
vides for  its  wants  during  the  night  only.     Its  chief  food  consists 
of  berries,  fruits,  buds,  roots,  &c.     For  the  Porcupine  winter  is 
a  time  of  sleep  ;  but  its  lethargy  does  not  seem  to  be  very  pro- 
found, because  it  makes  its  appearance  on  the  first  bright  days  of 
spring. 

58.  It  was  believed  for  a  long  time  that  porcupines  had  the 
faculty  of  discharging  or  shooting  off  their  spines ;  but  it  is  ascer- 
tained that  they  are  at  times  accidentally  detached,  and  also  by  the 
shock  they  receive  when  the  animal  raises  them  for  its  own  defence. 

59.  This  species  is  chiefly  met  with  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
and  the  southern  parts  of  the  Roman  States. 

55.  What  is  the  most  striking-  feature  of  the  Porcupine  ? 

56.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  Porcupines  proper?     What  are  the 
specific  characters  of  the  European  Porcupine  ? 

57.  Whut  are  the  habits  of  the  Porcupine  ?    Upon  what  does  it  generally 
feed? 

58.  Has  the  Porcupine  the  power  of  throwing  its  quills  or  spines  from  its 
body? 

59.  In  what  part  of  the  world  is  the  Porcupine  found  ? 

8* 


88  HARE.— RABBIT. 


60.  Other  Rodentia  that  have  a  prehensile  tail  like  that  of  the 
Sapajous,  and  climb  trees,  are  ranged  at  the  side  of  Porcupines. 

Tiibe  of  Hates. 

61.  The  Rodentia  of  which  this  tribe  is  composed,  differ  from 
other   animals  of  the  same  order  by  the  arrangement  of  their 
incisor  teeth,  which  are  double,  each  one  of  them  having  a  smaller 
one  behind  it.     They  have  five  toes  before  and  four  behind,  and 
the  soles  of  their  feet,  as  well  as  the  outside  of  their  mouth,  are 
furnished  with  hairs  like  the  rest  of  the  body. 

62.  The  HARES  PROPER, — Lepus, — are  recognised  by  their  long 
ears,  their  short  tail,  and  the  length  of  their  hind  feet.     They  are 
nocturnal  animals,  and  of  all  their  senses,  that  of  hearing  appears 
to  be  the  most  perfect ;  they  are  extremely  timid,  and  fly  from  the 
slightest  danger.     Their  walk  consists  in  a  succession  of  leaps,  and 
their  run  only  differs  in  rapidity.  They  inhabit  woods,  copses,  rocks, 
and  sometimes  plains,  and  feed  on  vegetable  substances  which 
modify  the  taste  of  their  flesh,  according  as  these  may  be  more 
or  less  aromatic ;  it  is  known  indeed,  that  such  is  the  cause  of  the 
difference  between  the  taste  of  the   wild   and   domestic   hare. 
Some  provide  for  their  individual  security,  and  that  of  their  young, 
by  excavating  deep  holes,  or  by  inhabiting  rents  and  hollows  in 
rocks,  while  others  content  themselves  with  a  furrow,  a  stump,  a 
copse,  or  the  trunk  of  a  hollow  tree. 

63.  The  Common  flare, — Lepus  Timidus, — is  recognised  by 
a  yellowish  gray  coat,  having  ears  a  tenth  longer  than  its  head, 
tipped  with  black,  and  the  tail  white,  with  a  black  line  above,  and 
of  the  length  of  its  thigh.     It  Jives  alone  and  cannot  be  domesti- 
cated ;  it  differs  from  the  rabbit  in  not  digging  a  burrow,  but  is 
contented  with  a  hole,  the  situation  of  which  it  changes  accord- 
ing to  the  season. 

64.  The  Rabbit, — Lepus  Cimiciilns, — is  smaller  than  the  hare, 
and  has  ears  shorter  than  the  head  and  without   the  black   tip ; 
its  tail  is  also  shorter  than  the  thigh,  and  brown  above.    It  appears 
to  be  originally  from  Spain,  but  now  abounds  throughout  Europe. 
It  lives  in  troops  and  burrows  in  dry  soils.     It    accustoms  itself 
to  the  domestic  condition,  and  in  time  assumes  very  various 
colours. 

60.  Are  there  any  other  gnawers  related  to  the  tribe  of  Porcupines  ? 

61.  How  do  animals  of  the  tribe  of  Hares  differ  from  other  Rodentia  ? 

62.  How  are  Hares  proper  recognised?     What  are  their  habits? 

63.  How  is  the  common  Hare  recognised  ? 

64.  What  is  the  Rabbit? 


GUINEA-PIG.— PELTRY. 


Tribes  of  Cabiais  and  Pacas. 

65.  The  Rodentia  that  constitute  these  two  tribes  belong  to 
America,  and  generally  resemble  each  other  in  form ;  many  of 
them  however,  are  higher  on  their,  legs  than  most  animals  of  the 
same  order. 

66.  The  Guinea- I'ici, —  Mm  Porcdlus  of  Li nnagus  —  belongs  to 
the  tribe  of  Cabiais.     This  small  animal,  which  is  originally  from 
South  America,  where  it  is  still  found  in  its  wild  state,  is  exten- 
sively multiplied  throughout  Europe,  where,  in  some  houses,  it  is 
kept,  under  the  impression  that  its  odour  drives  away  rats. 

General  Remarks  on  I'ellrics. 

67.  Almost  all  the  peltries  or  furs  in  use,  are  derived  from  ani- 
mals of  the  two  orders  the  description  of  which  we  have  just  con- 
cluded, namely:  the  Carnaria  and  Rodentia. 

68.  The  furs  most  esteemed  are  those  in  which  the  long,  silky, 
thick  hairs  cover  a  considerable   quantity  of  down.     They  all 
come  from  cold  countries ;  the  only  peltries  from  warm  regions 
are  those  with  smooth  hair.     Climate  has  very  great  influence 
upon  the  fur  of  animals;  when  nature  has  designed  them  to  live 
in  cold  countries,  they  have  a  thick  warm  fur,  while  in  hot  climates 
they  only  possess  short  dry'hairs  not  very  closely  set,  arid  there 
is  no  soft  down  growing  up  between  these  hairs,  as  is  the  case  in 
the  first. 

69.  The  seasons  also  exercise  an  influence  on  furs.     In  the 
summer  the  ordinary  hairs  are  not  so  long  nor  so  abundant  as  in 
winter ;  and  it  is  only  in  this  latter  season  that  there  exists  any 
large  quantity  of  fur  at  their  base.     Sometimes  very  considerable 
changes  take  place  in  the  colour  of  their  hairs  at  different  seasons. 

70  At  a  certain  time  of  the  year  the  mammiferous  animals 
lose  their  hair  which  is  replaced  by  a  new  growth.  This  change 
usually  occurs  in  spring  and  autumn  ;  sometimes  it  occurs  with- 
out the  colour  of 'the  coat  being  modified,  while  at  others,  the 
new  hair  bears  no  resemblance  Whatever  to  the  old.  Thus  it  is 
in  the  north  that  the  Squirrel,  instead  of  always  preserving  its 
reddish  colour,  assumes  in  winter  a  pretty  gray.  The  Isatis,  or  blue 


65.  To  what  part  of  the  world  do  those  animals  belong,  that  are  included 
in  the  tribes  of  Cabiais  and  Pacas? 

66.  What  is  the  Guinra-Pijr? 

67.  What  orders  of  animals  furnish  mo^t  peltries  ? 

68.  Has  climate  any  influence  on  the  fur  of  animals? 

69.  What  effect  have  the  seasons  on  furs  ? 

70.  Are  mammiferous  animals  always  clothed  in  the  same  hair  ? 


90  PELTRY.— FELT. 


Fox  of  Siberia,  undergoes  changes  of  colour  not  less  consider- 
able, and  hence  its  winter  fur  is  very  much  sought,  while  its  sum- 
mer coat  is  almost  valueless. 

71.  Some  furs  are  supplied  by  animals  that  inhabit  France  and 
the  neighbouring  countries  ;  but  the  majority  of  them  come  from 
North  America,  or  Siberia. 

72.  [The   peltries,  which  are  called   in  France,  Sauvagines, 
are  furnished  by  the  Fox,  the  Beech-Marten,  the  Pole-Cat,  the 
River  Otter,  the  Domestic  Cat,  the  Hare  and   Rabbit.     Most  of 
these  skins  are  dyed  in  imitation  of  the  more  precious  furs.     This 
mode  of  imparting  artificial  colours,   known   in  manufactures 
under  the  name  of  lustering,  is  generally  effected  by  the  succes- 
sive application  of  different  coats  of  colouring  matter,  by  the  aid 
of  a  brush  rather  than  by  immersion,  because  it  is  easier  in  this 
way  to  imitate  nature,  by  giving  the  different  tints  to   the  base 
and  point  of  the  hair.     This  business  is  extensively  carried  on  in 
Paris  and  Lyons,  with  the  greatest  degree  of  perfection.] 

73.  In  the  empire  of  Russia,  the  pursuit  of  animals  for  their  fur 
is  chiefly  carried  on  in  that  vast  extent  of  country  between  the 
east  of  the  Volga,  and  Kamtschatka,  and  also  on  the  north  west 
coast  of  America,  where  a  great  number  of  Sea  Ottters  are  taken, 
the  fur  of  which  is  highly  esteemed,  and  is  principally  sold  to  the 
Chinese.     Siberia  furnishes  different  species  of  foxes,  the  skins  of 
which  are  often  of  great  value  (such  as  that  of  the  Isatis  or  blue 
fox,  the  black  fox,  &c.)  the  marten,  the  sable,  the  ermine,  &c.; 
bears  also  furnish  a  good  proportion  of  peltries. 

74.  The  immense  forests  of  the  north,  east,  and  west  of  America 
furnish  beaver,  marten,  river  otter,  bear  skins,  &c. 

75.  The  annual  sale  of  peltries  on  an  average  of  four  years, 
in  London,   is  nearly  five  hundred  thousand  skins  of  various 
kinds,  which  affords  some  general  notion  of  the  value  of  the  fur 
trade. 

Of  the  manufacture  of  Felt. 

76.  The  skins  of  many  animals  of  the  order  of  Rodentia,  not 
only  serve  for  peltry,  but  are  also  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  fur  hats.     Hairs  have  the  property  of  mixing  and  matting  so 

71.  What  countries  furnish  most  fur? 

72.  Do  the  furs  offered  for  sale  alwnys  possess  their  natural  colours? 

73.  In  what  parts  of  the  Russian  Empire  are  animals  most  hunted    for 
Jieir  fur? 

74.  What  pellries  are  obtained  from  North  America? 

75.  What  is  the  number  of  fur  skins  annually  sold  in  London? 

76.  What  is  Felt? 


MANUFACTURE  OF  HATS. 91 

closely  together  when  worked,  that  very  substantial  tissues  may 
be  formed  of  them,  and  it  is  in  this  way  that  what  is  termed  jtlt 
is  produced. 

77.  Fur  hats  are  manufactured  principally  from  the   down  of 
the  Rabbit  and  Hare;  formerly  a  great  deal  of  the  hair  of  Cas- 
tors was  employed,  but  its  high  price  has  driven  it  almost  entirely 
out  of  use. 

78.  [The  manufacture   of  hats  of  felt  is  quite  simple,  con- 
sisting of  a  series  of  three  operations,   namely ;    the   cutting 
and  preparation  of  the  hair,  pressing,  and  dressing.     In  France, 
women  are  usually  employed  in  the  first  part  of  the  work :  they 
first  remove  the  hair  that  covers  the  fur,  and  then  pass  the  skin 
to  a  workman  whose  business  it  is  to  wet  the  fur  or  down  with 
a  liquid,  composed  of  quicksilver  dissolved  in  weak  nitric  acid. 
The  object  of  this  operation  is  to  increase  the  felting  property  of 
the  hair.     When  this  is  done,  the  skins  are  dried  by  a  stove,  and 
then  handed  to  the  cutters  or  shearers,  who,  provided   with  a 
cutting  instrument  of  a  particular  form,  detach  the  down  from 
the  back  and  flanks  of  the  skin.     The  hair  thus  prepared  is  de- 
livered to  the  hatter  who  proceeds  to  felting.     For  this  purpose 
he  places  on  a  table  a  quantity  of  down  sufficient  to  make  a  hat, 
and  begins  the  work  by  an  operation  called  bowing:  he  is  pro- 
vided with  a  sort  of  large  bow,  which  is  suspended   from  the 
ceiling,  the  string  of  which  he  passes  into  the  heap  of  hair  and 
causes  it  to  vibrate.     By 'this  means  he  throws  into  the  air  all 
the  delicate  filaments  which  constitute  the  down,  separates,  and 
mixes  them  in  every  way.     The  light  mass  thus  obtained  is  then 
spread  on  a  cloth  or  leather,  and  pressed  in  every  direction.     By 
this  process  the  hair  is  by  degrees  more  intimately  mixed,  and  be- 
gins to  felt.     When  this  is  over,  we  have  a  large  slightly  consis- 
tent cake  which  is  then  kneaded  or  worked,  taking  the  precaution 
to  dip  it,  from  time  to  time  in  hot  water  slightly  sharpened  with  sul- 
phuric acid.  This  kneading  or  working  is  performed  on  an  inclined 
table  or  board  placed  around  the  boiler,  and  is  executed  by  the 
hand,  a  wooden  roller  or  a  brush.     In  proportion  as  the  hair  felts, 
the  cake  becomes  more  and  more  dense,  and  by  working  it  in  one 
direction  more  than  the  other,  it  is  made  to  assume  an  oval  shape. 
Generally  a  cake  or  foundation  of  common  hair  is  first  prepared, 
and  afterwards  gilded;  that  is  to    say,  there  is    incorporated 
upon  its  surface  a  coat  of  finer  hairs,  which  are  kneaded   much 
less,  so  that  they  remain  partially  free,  and  constitute  a  bed  or 
layer  of  soft  down,  which  hatters  call  the  feather  or   nap.       For 
the  gilding,  they  use  about  an  ounce  of  the  fine  fur  of  the  Russian 

77.  What  animals  furnish  the  materials  for  the  manufacture  of  fur  hats? 

78.  What  is  the  process  of  manufacturing  hata  ? 


92 GLUE.— ORDER  OF  EDENTATA. 

Hare.  One  half  of  this  quantity  of  Beaver  hair  covers  as  much, 
and  produces  a  much  handsomer  effect ;  but  from  its  great  price, 
it  is  seldom  used  except  in  mixture  with  other  hair.  Finally,  to 
complete  the  manufacture  of  a  hat,  the  felt  is  softened  by  steam, 
and  formed  on  wooden  blocks ;  then  it  is  dyed,  and  its  interior 
surface  glued  to  impart  to  it  greater  n'rmness.  This  branch  of 
manufacture  is  carried  on  almost  every  where  in  France  ;  but  is 
most  extensive  in  Paris  and  Lyons.  There  are  about  1,100  hat 
manufactories  in  France,  in  which  17,000  workmen  find  employ-  . 
ment,  and  the  annual  product  of  their  labor  is  estimated  at  nine- 
teen millions  of  francs,  (or  more  than  three  and  a  half  millions 
of  dollars;)  but  the  business  has  decreased  in  importance  of  late, 
owing  to  the  general  use  of  silk  hats. 

79.  After  the  hair  and  fur  have  been  removed  from  them,  these 
skins  are  converted  into  glue.  The  skin  is  insoluble  in  water, 
under  ordinary  circumstances  ;  but  if  it  be  boiled  for  a  long  time 
in  that  liquid,  it  softens,  dissolves,  and  is  transformed  into  a  par- 
'  ticular  product  called  gelatine,  which  on  cooling  forms  a  jelly 
more  or  less  solid.  The  same  is  true  of  the  tendons  and  various 
other  tissues  of  the  animal  economy,  and  the  gelatine  thus  ob- 
tained constitutes  common  glue.] 

LESSON    VIII. 
OKDER    OF    EDENTATA. — Zoological  Characters.  —  Division   into 

three  families. 

FAMILY  OF  TARDIGRADA. — Organization. — Habits. — ./?/,  or  Sloth. 
FAMILY  OF  ORDINARY  EDENTATA — (Armadillos,  >ft  tit-eaters,  Manis.) 
FAMILY  OF  MONOTREMATA. — Peculiarities  of  their  Organization. 
.     — Ornithorynchus. — Echidna. 
ORDER  OF  PACHYDERM  AT  A.— Zoological  Characters.— Peculiarities 

of  their  Organization. — Division  into  three  families. 
FAMILY    OF  P'ROBOSCIDIANA. —  Genus  Elephant. — Organization. — 

Habits.— Use.— Ivory,  (Elephants  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Siberia) 

ORDER     OP     EDENTATA. 

1.  Under  this  head  is  placed  a  considerable  number  of  ani* 
mals  remarkable  for  a  certain  slowness  and  want  of  agility  owing 
to  the  position  of  their  extremities.  In  general  their  toes  are 

79.  Are  the  skins  of  any  use  after  the  fur  and  hair  have  been  removed  from 
them?  What  is  glue? 

1  What  is  the  distinctive  character  of  animals  belonging  to  the  order 
Edentata  ?  How  is  this  order  divided  ?  How  is  the  Tardigrada  distin- 
guished from  the  ordinary  Edentata?  (See  table.-)  How  are  the  Monotre- 
mata  distinguished  from  the  other  two  families  of  this  order  ? 


ORDER  OF  EDENTATA.— SLOTHS. 93 

enveloped  in  stout  nails  upon  which  they  walk  with  difficulty. 
Their  common  distinctive  character  is  the  wanting  of  teeth  in  the 
anterior  part  of  the  jaws,  that  is,  the  incisor  teeth.  (Plate  4.  fig.  3.) 
Sometimes  the  canine  and  molar  teeth  are  also  wanting,  so  that 
the  animal  is  then  entirely  edentate.  This  order  is  divided  into 
three  families  which  may  be  recognised  by  the  characters  enu- 
merated in  the  following  table  : 

(Families.) 

{The  face  very  short.     TARDIGRADA. 
The     muzzle    long1, )        ORDINARY 
and  pointed.  {       EDENTATA. 

[     Provided  with  a  cloaca.  (1.)       ....     MONOTREMATA. 

(1.)  NOTE. — That  is  to  say,  having  the  rectum  and  duct  for  the  passage  of 
the  urine  opening  into  a  common  cavity,  called  cloaca  which  has  a  single 
outlet,  as  is  the  case  in  birds  and  reptiles. 

FAMILY  OF  TARDIGRADA,  OR  SLOTHS. 

2.  The  SLOTHS, — Bradypus, — bear  some  resemblance  to  de- 
formed and  stupified  monkeys,  and  they  have  in  their  whole  being 
something  so  disproportioned  and  strange,  that  at  first  sight  they 
might  be  taken  as  the  product  of  some  fantastic  freak  of  nature  ; 
but  when  these  anomalies  are  closely  studied,  we  find  they  have 
their  use,  and  that  they  all  tend,  however  grotesque  they  seem,  to 
adapt  the  organs  of  the  animal  to  the  purposes  for  which  its  kind 
of  life  has  designed  them. 

3.  When  on  the  ground,  nothing  is  more  awkward,  more  un- 
graceful and  powerless  than  the  sloths.     Their  short,  stout  body 
is  borne  on  extremities  so  unequal  in  length,  that,  in  order  to 
walk,  the  animal  is  obliged  to  tread  on  its  elbows  ;  the  pelvis  is 
broad,  and  the  thighs  are  directed  so  much  outwards,  that  they 
cannot  bring  the  knees  together ;  at  the  same  time  their  hind  feet 
are  articulated  so  obliquely  upon  the  legs  that  they  only  touch  the 
ground  by  their  external  edge ;  and  the  toes,  joined  together  by 
the  skin,  do  not  show  except  by  their  enormous  hooked   nails, 
which  are  flexed  when  at  rest,  and  they  possess  so  little  move- 
ability  that  at  a  certain  age  the  first  phalanges  become  soldered  to 
the  bones  of  the  metacarpus  and  metatarsus.     The  sitting  and 
vertical  position  is  least  inconvenient  to  them,  but  their  head  being 
in  a  line  with  the  axis  of  the  body,  their  mouth  then  looks  up- 
wards, rendering  it  very  difficult  for  them  to  graze  upon  the 
ground ;  add  to  this  that  their  flexor  muscles  are  much  more 

2.  Are  Sloths  really  misshapen  and  illy  formed  animals  ? 
3.  What  are  the  general  peculiarities  of  the  conformation  of  the  Sloths? 
How  do  they  feed  ? 


94 SLOTHS— ARMADILLOS. 

powerful  than  their  extensors,  the  latter  being  those  which  sustain 
the  weight  of  the  body  when  walking,  and  that  their  motions  are 
extremely  slow,,  and  we  can  then  form  an  idea  of  the  restraint 
to  which  the  mode  of  conformation  of  these  animals  must  subject 
them,  when  placed  under  the  same  circumstances  in  which  most 
quadrupeds  live  and  move  without  inconvenience.  But  it  would 
be  wrong  to  believe  that  nature  has  made  any  imperfect  or 
grotesque  beings;  it  is  altogether  otherwise;  she  has  designed 
the  Sloths  to  live  hooked  to  branches  of  trees,  and  in  this  position, 
in  which  the  most  ordinary  quadrupeds  would  be  quickly 
fatigued,  the  anomalies  of  structure  we  have  just  pointed  out, 
become  so  many  happy  provisions  to  enable  these  edentata  to 
climb  and  cling,  with  the  least  possible  muscular  effort,  and  to 
facilitate  the  prehension  of  their  food,  suspended  over  their  heads. 

4.  The  dental  system  of  these  animals  also  possesses  distinctive 
peculiarities ;  their  canines  are  long  and  sharp,  and  their  molars 
are  cylindrical.     Their  stomach  is  divided   into   four   pouches 
analogous  to  the  four  stomachs  of  the  Ruminantia.     They  have 
two  mammae  on  the  chest  and  only  give  birth  to  one  young  one 
at  a  time,  which  is  carried  on  the  back.      They  feed  on  leaves. 
They  inhabit  the  forests  in  the  anterior  of  South  America.     The 
most  remarkable  species  of  the  many  that  are  known,  is  the 
*#/,    or  the    Three  Fingered  Sloth, —  Bradypus   Tridactylus, — 
(Plate  &,fig>  1.)  It  is  the  only  mammal  that  has  more  than  seven 
cervical  vertebrae  ;  it  has  nine.     It  is  about  the  size  of  a  cat,  its 
arms  are  twice  as  long  as  its  legs,  and  the  hair  which  covers  its 
back  is  long,  coarse,  without  elasticity,  and  resembles  withered 
grass.     Its  name  is  derived  from  its  cry. 

FAMILY  OF  ORDINARY  EDENTATA. 

5.  Animals  of  this   family  are  recognised  by  their   pointed 
muzzle.     Of  the  genera  composing  this  family,  the 

6.  1st.  ARMADILLOS,— Dasypus,— (Plate  4,  fig.  2.)     Are  very 
singular  animals,  having  the  head,  the  body,  and  very  often  the 
tail,  covered  by  a  hard,  scaly  coat,  composed  of  compartments 
like  mosaic.     This  substance  which  may  be  considered  as  agglu- 
tinated hair,  forms  one  shield  on  the  front,  a  second  very  large 
and  convex  one  on  the  shoulders,  a  third  similar  to  the  preceding 
on  the  croup,  and,  between  these  two  shields,  several  moveable 


4.  What  is  the  character  of  their  teeth  ?     Is  there  any  thing  remarkable 
in  the  conformation  of  the  stomach  ?     Where  are  Sloths  found  ?     What  is 
the  most  remarkable  species  known?     For  what  feature  of  its  organization, 
compared  with  other  mammals,  is  the  Sloth  remarkable  ? 

5.  How  are  the  Edentata  recognised  ? 

6.  What  are  Armadillos  ? 


ANT-EATERS— MANIS.        95 

parallel  bands,  which  give  the  body  the  faculty  of  bending;  the 
tail  is  sometimes  covered  with  a  succession  of  rings;  and  some- 
times, like  the  legs,  only  with  different  tubercles ;  a  few  scatter- 
ing hairs  grow  between  the  scales,  or  on  parts  of  the  body  that 
are  not  covered  by  these  plates.  These  animals  have  large  ears, 
and  large  nails;  the  number  of  the  latter  is  always  five  behind; 
and  sometimes  four,  and  at  others,five  before.  The  armadillos 
vary  in  size,  from  that  of  a  badger  to  that  of  a  hedgehog ;  they 
are  stout  in  the  body  and  low  on  their  legs.  They  are  all  origin- 
ally from  the  hot  or  temperate  parts  of  America;  they  burrow, 
and  feed  partly  on  insects,  partly  on  vegetables  and  in  part  on 
dead  bodies. 

7.  2nd.  The  ANT-EATPRS, —  Myrmecoplwya, — inhabit  the  same 
countries  as  the  armadillos,  but  are  readily  distinguished  from 
them,  because  their  body  is  hairy  like  that  of  most  mammals,  and 
their  muzzle,drawn  out  in  a  long  cylindrical  tube,  is  terminated 
by  a  small  mouth, which  is  entirely  without  teeth.  Their  jaws, 
which  are  very  long,  they  can  scarcely  separate  from  each  other, 
nor  can  they  use  them  to  seize  or  compress  their  food  ;  but  they 
are  provided  with  a  very  long  filiform  tongue,  which  they  can 
project  to  a  considerable  distance  beyond  the  mouth,  and  which 
always  being  covered  with  a  viscid,  gluey  humor,  serves  them 
to  seize  the  ants  and  other  insects  upon  which  they  feed.  By  the 
assistance  of  their  strong,  trenchant  nails,  which  vary  in  number 
according  to  the  species,  the  ant-eaters  tear  up  the  nests  of  the 
Termites,  or  white  ants,  and  at  the  moment  these  little  insects 
sally  forth  in  crowds  from  their  retreat,  to  form  a  rampart  and 
defend  themselves,  they  protrude  upon  them  their  viscid  tongue, 
and  drawing  it  in  again  suddenly,  convey  them  into  their  mouth. 
When  at  rest,  these  nails,  which  serve  also  as  defensive  arms,  are 
folded  back  against  a  callosity  on  the  wrist,  and  the  animal  only 
rests  its  foot  on  the  side,  and  its  gait  is  slow.  Some  species  have 
a  prehensile  tail,  by  which  they  suspend  themselves  from  branches 
of  trees  ;  the  largest  species,  called  Tai/ninoir,  does  not  possess  this 
faculty;  it  is  four  feet  long,  and  inhabits  low,  humid  places. 

3d.  The  MANIS,  or  PANGOLINS,  (I'lale  4,  //V.  4) — are  without 
teeth,  have  a  very  extensible  tongue,  and  Jive  on  ants  and  termites 
like  the  preceding;  but  their  body,  extremities  and  tail,  are 
covered  with  large  trenchant  scales,  disposed  like  tiles,  and 
which  are  raised  when  they  roll  themselves  into  a  ball  to  avoid 
danger ;  a  few  long  bristles  grow  at  the  base  of  these  scales. 
They  all  belong  to  the  old  continent,  Asia  or  Africa. 

7.  What  are  Ant  eaters  ?      Upon  what  do  they  feed  ?      How  do  they  seize 
their  prey  ? 

8,  What  is  the  Manis  ?     How  does  the  Manis  differ  from  the  Ant-eater  ? 


96 ECHIDNA— ORNITHORYNC  BUS. 

FAMILY  OF  MONOTREMATA. 

9.  It  includes  animals  of  a  strange  construction,  which  unite 
the  characters  of  the  mammal  with  those  of  the  oviparous  ani- 
mals, and  whose  place  in  the  classification  of  mammalia  is  still  a 
subject  of  controversy  with  some  naturalists.     The  monotremata, 
like  birds,  have  but  one  opening  for  the  escape  of  excrement 
and  urine ;  but  there  is  found  under  the  belly   two  glandular 
masses,  which  most  naturalists  consider  to  be  mammas  ;  besides 
the  five  nails  on  all  the  feet,  the  males  have  on  the  hind  legs  a 
peculiar  spur  traversed  by  a  canal  from  which  issues  a  liquid, 
which  is  secreted  by  a  gland  adhering  to  the  thigh.     It  is  asserted 
that  wounds  inflicted  by  them  are  poisonous.     The  accounts  of 
travellers  and  of  the  natives  of  the  countries  which  they  inhabit, 
seem  to  establish  that  they  lay  eggs  like  birds ;  but  this  is  still 
doubtful. 

10.  They  are  peculiar  to  New  Holland  and  Van  Dieman's 
land.     This  singular  family  contains  two  genera. 

11.  1st.  The  ECHIDNA  resemble  the  Hedgehogs,  because  they 
are  covered  above  with  numerous  spines  mingled  with  hairs,  and 
below  they  have  hair  only.     The  body  is  stout  and  short,  the  neck 
is  scarcely  perceptible,  the  tail  is  merely  a  tubercle  covered  with 
spines ;  their  long  muzzle  terminated  by  a  small  mouth,  contains 
a  very  long  tongue,  which  they  protrude  to  seize  insects,  upon 
which  they  feed ;  they  have  no  teeth,  but  their  palate  is  armed 
with  several  ranges  of  little  spines  directed  backwards;  they  have 
short  feet  armed  with  nails  for  digging.     These  animals  readily 
excavate  the  earth,  and  form  subterraneous  abodes  near  to  trees. 
Like  the  hedgehogs,  they  roll  themselves  into  a  ball. 

12.  2d.  The  ORNITHORYNCHUS, — (Plate  4.  fig.  5.) — has  a  small 
elongated  body,  a  small  head,  a  very  strong  tail  which  is  short, 
flattened,  and,  at  its  root,  as  wide  as  the  body  of  the  animal, 
like  that  of  the  Beaver ;  it  is  covered  with  hair,  and  the  extremi- 
ties are  very  short,  and    the  anterior  widely    separated    from 
the  posterior  ones      The  muzzle  is  terminated  by  a  horny  beak 
like  that  of  a  duck,  and  like  it  the  edges  are  provided  with  small 
transverse  plates ;  in  the  back  part  of  the  mouth  only,  it  has  two 
teeth  without  roots  and  flat  crowns,  on  each  side  of  both  jaws ; 
the  tongue  is  large  and  soft,  the  nares  are  round,  situate  towards 

9.  Wh:it  is  pecu  iar  in  animals  of  the  family  of  Monotremata? 

10.  In  what  parts  of  the  world  are  the  Aloi.otremata  found  ?     How  many 
genera  does  this  family  include  ? 

11.  What  are  Echidna?     What  are  their  habits? 

12.  What  is  the  Ornitliorynchus  ?     What  are  its  peculiarities  ?     What  are 
its  habits?     Where  is  it  found  ? 


PACHYDERMATA.  97 


the  superior  extremity  of  the  horny  beak;  the  neck  is  short,  and 
the  general  form  of  the  body  is  nearly  cylindrical.  The  fore  feet 
have  a  membrane  which  not  only  unites  the  toes,  but  is  carried 
considerably  beyond  the  nails ;  on  the  hind  feet  the  membrane 
terminates  at  the  root  of  the  nails.  As  might  be  anticipated  from 
what  we  have  said  of  their  conformation,  the  Oruithorynchi  are 
aquatic  animals ;  they  inhabit  the  marshes  and  rivers  in  the  in- 
terior of  New  Holland,  and  live  like  ducks,  (if  we  may  thus  apply 
the  word,)  by  sifting  the  mud  to  separate  from  it  insects  and  larva?. 
The  species  best  known  is  the  Ornithorynchus  Paradoxus. 


ORDER     OF     PACHYDERMATA. 

13.  The  animals  comprised  in  this  order  are  remarkable  for  the 
hard  thick  hide  with  which  most  of  them  are  covered  :  they  are 
nnyulatc  mammals,  (that  is,  the  extremity  of  the  foot  is  enveloped 
in  a  very  large  nail,  constituting  a  hoof;)  they  have  generally  a 
simple  stomach  and  do  not  ruminate. 

14.  Their  teeth  present  great  varieties  in  form  and  structure  ; 
in  some,  the  incisors  are  trenchant,  in  others  they  are  wanting  ; 
and  in  others  again  they  are  replaced  by  tusks.     The  same  is  true 
of  the  canines ;  while  some  resemble  ordinary  canines,  others  be- 
come powerful  and  dangerous  defensive  weapons,  and  others 
again  want  them  altogether.     The  molars  have  wide  irregular 
surfaces  suited  for  grinding. 

15.  They  are  entirely  without  a  clavicle  and  are  incapable   of 
bending  the  fingers  (toes)  which  are  in  number  either  five,  or  three, 
or  only  one,  and  rarely  two.     The  Order  of  P  achy  dermal  a  in- 
cludes the  largest  terrestrial  mammals  known.     Except  the  Horse, 
they  are  all  clumsy,  and  have  a  heavy,  indolent  gait ;  are  very 
dirty,  and  particularly  fond  of  wallowing  in  the  mud ;  they  con- 
tinually dwell  in  troops,  in  warm  covered  places,  in  marshy  situa- 
tions, where  they  find  aquatic  stalks  and  roots  suited  to  their  wants; 
sometimes  the  neck  is  very  short,  but  then,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
Elf  pliant,  they  are  provided  with  a  trunk  capable  of  raising  from 
the  ground  all  objects  which  they  wish  to  convty  to  the  mouth  ; 
or,  remaining  almost  constantly  in  the  water,  they  can,    without 
stooping,  catch  the  leaves  and  stalks  floating  on  its  surface. 

13.  How  are  animals  of  the  order  of  Pachydermata   characterised?     Do 
they  chew  the  cud? 

14.  What  is  the  character  of  the  dental  system  of  animals  of  this  order  ? 

15.  What  kind  of  a  clavicle  have  the  Pachydermata  ?     What  is  the  num- 
ber of  their  toes  ?     What  are  their  general  habits  ? 


98  PROEOSCIDIANA. 


16.  These  animals,  which  resemble  each  other  in  the  general 
features  of  their  organization,  are  still  distinguishable  by  impor- 
tant particulars,  which  has  made  it  necessary  to  divide  them  into 
three  families ;  the  Proboscidiann,  the  Ordinary  Pac/iydermata, 
and  the  Solipedes,  which  may  be  recognised  by  the  following 
characters : 

(Families.) 

Having  tusks,  a  prehensile  trunk  and  /  „ 
five  toes  on  all  [he  feet.  \  PROBOSCIDIAN*. 


PACHYDERMATA.  •!    Not  having  a  pre-    C  Having  at  least  1  D 

hrn.ile   trunk,    and  I  two  toes  and    at  j, P^HYDKRMATA 
not  having  five  toes]         most  four.        J 

on  all  the  ket.       (_  A  single  toe  apparent.     SOLIPEDES. 

FAMILY  OF  PROBOSCI  DIANA. 

17.  These  are  I}ac/n/dertnafa  with  a  trunk  and  tusks.     They 
have  five  toes  on  all  the  feet,  but  incrusted  in  a  sort  of  hoof  of 
callous  skin  ;  their  nails  only  are  apparent.     They  have  neither 
canine  or  incisor  teeth,  but  they  have  in  the  upper  jaw  two  tusks 
of  enormous  size;    the  mamma3,  two  in  number,  are  placed  upon 
the  chest.     This  family  includes  one  living  genus  only. 

18.  The  Genus  ELEPHANT, — Elephas,—This  genus  (Plate  5, 
Jig.  1,  and  2.)  comprises  animals  of  gigantic  size,  naturally  mild 

and  docile  in  disposition,  which  enables  them  readily  to  bear  the 
domestic  condition.  The  amplitude  required  by  the  alveoli  of 
the  upper  jaw  to  contain  the  two  tusks,  elevates  it  so  much,  and 
at  the  same  time  shortens  the  bones  of  the  nose,  that  the  nares, 
in  the  skeleton,  are  found  near  the  top  of  the  face ;  but  in  the 
living  animal  they  are  prolonged  into  a  cylindrical  trunk,  consist- 
ing of  a  double  tube,  composed  of  fibres  and  many  small  muscles 
variously  interlaced,  which  is  moveable  in  every  direction  and 
terminates  above  by  an  appendix  in  the  form  of  a  finger.  This 
trunk,  which  communicates  with  the  nasal  fossa3,  serves  the 
Elephant  to  seize  hold  of  every  thing  he  wishes  to  convey  to  the 
mouth,  to  pump  up  his  drink,  and  then  pour  it  into  his  throat ;  it 
thus  compensates  for  the  shortness  of  his  neck.  By  means  of 
this  curious  instrument,  the  Elephant  can  uproot  trees,  untie  knots, 

16.  Into  what  fairies  is  the  order  of  Pachydermata  divided  ?     What  are 
the  family  distinctions  of  the  Proboscidiana  ?     In  what   particulars   do    the 
Pachydermata  Ordinaria  differ  from  the  Pruboscidiana  ?      What   arc  the 
family  distinctions  of  the  Solipcdes  ? 

17.  What  are  Proboscidiana?     How  are  thr-y  recognised?     Where  are 
the  mam  race  situate?      What  number  of  genera  is  included  in  this  family  ? 

18.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  animals  belonging  to  the  genus  of 
Elephants  ?     What  is  the  trunk  ?    What  functions  are  performed  by  the 
trunk  ? 


ELEPHANTS.  99 


open  a  lock,  and  even  write  with  a  pen.  The  eyes  are  small, 
and  the  pupil  round  ;  the  ears  are  wide  and  lie  close  against  the 
head,  but  quite  moveable ;  the  parietes  of  the  cranium  contain 
great  vacuities  which  augment  the  size  of  the  head,  and  render 
the  front  projecting ;  the  skin  is  thick,  hard,  and  wrinkled,  and 
almost  without  hair  ;  the  tail  is  small.  These  animals  have  sharp 
sight ;  their  hearing  is  quick,  their  sense  of  smell  delicate,  their 
intelligence  developed,  their  perception  ready,  their  prudence  ex- 
treme :  they  remember  kindness  as  well  as  harshness  Their  gait 
is  heavy,  but  the  length  of  their  steps  gives  rapidity  to  their  march. 

19.  Although  the  Elephant  is  the  most  vigorous  and  most  power- 
ful of  quadrupeds,  in  a  state  of  nature  he  is  neither  cruel  nor 
formidable.     Peaceful  as  he  is  brave,  he  never  abuses  his  power, 
or  exerts  his  strength,  except  in  his  own  defence ;  he  is  rarely 
seen  alone  in  the  desert.     The  herds  usually  consist  of  from  forty 
to  one  hundred  Elephants.    The  oldest  marches  at  the  head  of  the 
troop,  and  the  next  in  age  watches  the  rear. 

20.  It  has  been  said,  the  Elephant  never  lies  down  ;  but  this  is 
an  error ;  he  lies  on  his  side,  and  sleeps  profoundly. 

21.  Elephants  are  tamed   when  taken  young;  they  may  be 
employed  for  the  purpose  of  transport.     They  carry  about  two 
thousand  pounds  weight,  and  will  travel  without  being  very  much 
fatigued,  a  distance  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  leagues.     These  ani- 
mals swim  well ;  they  live  to  the  age  of  nearly  two  hundred  years, 

22.  Two  species  of  Elephants  are  known:  1st.  The  Indian  or 
Asiatic  Elephant, — Ekphas  Indicus, — has  an  oblong  head,  con- 
cave front,  ears  of  middling  size,  and  four  nails  on  the  hind  feet. 
(Plate  5.  fig.   1.)     It  is  met  with  in  all  the  warm  parts  of  India, 
where  the  natives  pursue,  take,  tame,  and  employ  it  as  a  beast  of 
burthen  and  draught.     Its  tusks  often  remain  very  short. 

23.  2d.     The    African   Elephant,  —  Elephas    JJfricanus, — 
( Plate  5,  fig.  2  )  has  a  round  head,  a  convex  front ;  the  ears  are 
large,  and  there  are  but  three  nails  on  the  hind  feet.     It  inhabits 
Africa  from  Senegal  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.     It  is  more  fierce 
than  that  of  India,  and  its  tusks  are  much  longer ;  the  female  has 
them  as  long  as  the  male.     They  have  not  yet  succeeded  in 
taming  this  species. 

19.  Is  the  Elephant  solitary  in  his  habits  ? 

20.  How  does  the  Elephant  sleep  ? 

21.  What  weight  can  an  Elephant  carry?     To    what  age   do    Elephants 
live? 

22.  How  many  species  of  Elephants  are  known  ?     What  are  the  charac- 
ters of  the  Indian  Elephant  'f 

23.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  African  Elephant  ?     Has  this  species 
been  tamed  ? 

9* 


100 PACHYDERMATA  ORDINARTA. ___ 

24.  [In  Siam  there  is  a  variety  of  elephant  which  is  white, 
and  held  in  religious  veneration.] 

25.  The  tusks  of  elephants  furnish  true  ivory;  it  is  known  by 
the  curved  lozenge  formed  lines  its  cut  surface  exhibits  when 
polished.     That  which  is  obtained  from  the  animal  immediately 
after  its  death  is  called  green  ivory ;  it  is  more  esteemed  than  the 
other,  which  comes  from  tusks,  found  a  long  time  after  they  have 
been  separated  from  the  animal.     It  is  said  the  first  is  least  liable 
to  become  yellow. 

26.  An  elephant,  found  some  years  ago  in  the  ice  on  the  coast 
of  Siberia,  appears  to  have  been  covered  with  a  coat  of  thick  hair 
and  fur,  which  leads  to  the  supposition  that  this  species,  which 
has  long  since  disappeared  from  the  earth,  lived  in  cold  climates. 

27.  The  Mammoth  and  Mastodon  are  extinct  species  belong- 
ing to  the  family  of  Proboscidians. 


LESSON    IX. 

FAMILY  OP  PACHYDERMATA  ORDINARIA. — Genus  of  Hippopotamus. 

— Genus  of  Hogs,  (  Wild  Hog,   Domestic  Hoy.) — Genus  of 

Rhinoceros. 
FAMILY  OF  SOLIPEDES. — Horse. — Habits. — Signs  of  the   age  of 

Horses.  —  Principal   Races.  —  Ass.  —  Zebra.  —  Couagga.  — 

Onagga. 

FAMILY  OF  PACHYDERMATA  ORDINARIA. 

1.  This  family  is  distinguished  from  the  preceding,  because  the 
animals  belonging  to  it  have  no  trunk,  or  at  least  no  prehensile 
trunk,  and  from  the  family  which  follows,  because  the  animals 
composing  it  have  several  distinct  toes.  They  are  more  or  less 
omnivorous.  It  is  divided  into  several  genera,  amongst  which 
we  will  mention  the  following  : 


24.  What  kind  of  Elephants  arc  found  in  Siam  ? 

25.  What  is  ivory  ?     What  is  green  ivory  ? 

26.  Has  an  Elephant  with  a  h  iiry  skin  ever  been  found  ? 

27.  What  are  Mammoths  and  Mastadons  ? 

1.  How  is  the  family  of  ordinary  Pachydermata  distinguished  from  other 
Pachydermata  ?  What  are  the  chiract  TS  of  the  River  Horse  ?  What  are 
the  characters  of  the  Hog  ?  What  are  the  characters  of  *he  Rhinoceros  1 
What  are  the  characters  of  the  Tapirs  7 


HIPPOPOTAMUS.  101 


(Genera.) 
Four  equal  toes.      -    HIPPOPOTAMUS. 


PACHYDERMATA 


f   Equal,  and  the  TwQ   , 

foot   having    the     t          rmed*ilh  slrong 
appearance  ot  be-^  hoof     while  the   ,ale_ 


ing  forked.        I 


late-  Y 
und.  J 


ORDINARIA.      I  Having  on  all  the  j  IQ  regt  Qn  the    found 
Having  toes  in  '  feet  I. 

number  f     Tliree  toes    on    all 


RHINOCEROS. 


Unequal,  and    j  the  feet, 
the  f  tot  not       }      Four  toes  before  and     T 
forked.  [  three  behind. 

2.  The  HIPPOPOTAMUS, — the  River  Horse, — (Plate  5,  fig.  4.) 
Animals  of  this  genus  have  a  massive  body,  short  legs  and  tail, 
inflated  muzzle,  and  the  skin  almost  free  of  hair. 

3.  These  animals,  whose  belly  almost  reaches  the  ground,  so 
short  are  their  extremities,  live  in  the  rivers  of  southern  Africa, 
and  feed  on  vegetable  substances.     They  are   brownish    black, 
and  are  from  ten  to  eleven  feet  long,  and  from  four  to  five  feet  in 
height.     They  seek  their  food  in  the  water  as  well  as  on  land. 
Sometimes  three  or  four  of  them  are  seen  together  in  a  river,  or 
near  a  cataract,  forming  a  sort  of  line  and  rushing  upon  the  fishes 
which  the  rapidity  of  the  current  brings  towards  them.     They 
swim  with  great  vigor,  and  remain  a  long  time  under  water  with- 
out any  necessity  of  breathing  the  air  ;  they  conduct  themselves 
with  so  much  precaution,  rising  so  little  above  the  surface  of  the 
water,  that  they  can  scarcely  be  seen.     During  the  night,  they 
leave  the  rivers  to  visit  plantations  of  sugar,  millet,  or  rice,  which 
they  devour  with  avidity  :  they  are  so  impetuous  in  their  march, 
that  they  break  down  every  thing  that  comes  in  their    way. 
Their  fierce  character  renders  them  very  formidable. 

4.  HOGS, — »Sws, — also  have  four  toes  on  all  the  feet,  but  two  of 
them  are  very  large,  directed  forwards,  and  two  which  are  very 
small    and  external,  scarcely  touch  the  ground.     Their  incisors 
vary  in  number,  and  the  canines  protrude  from  the  mouth,  and 
are  all  recurved  like  true  tusks ;  their  muzzle  is  terminated  by  a 
truncated,  fleshy  button,  suitable  for  rooting  the  ground.      Their 
sense  of  smell  is  very  fine,  and  their  tongue  is  soft.     They  live 
in  troops  in  forests,  where  they  feed  on  roots  and  fruits  although, 
they  manifest  no  repugnance  to  animal  food.     To  this  genus  be- 
longs : 

2.  How  are  animals  of  the  genus  Hippopotamus  distinguished  ? 

3.  What  are  the  general  characters  of  animals  of  this  genus  ? 

4.  What  are  the  characters  and  habits  of  Hogs? 


102 HOGS.— RHINOCEROS.— TAPIRS. 

5.  The  Wild  Hog, — Sus  Scropha, — which  is  the  parent  stock 
of  our  Domestic  Hog,  has  a  thick,  short  body,  straight  ears, 
prismatic  tusks  which  curve  outwards,  hair  bristled  and  blackish. 
It  is  smaller  than  the  hog,  and  does  not  vary  in  its  colour,  it  is 
always  a  dark  iron  gray,  with  black  ears,  feet  and  tail.     Its 
muzzle  is  longer  than  that  of  the  hog,  and  its  tusks  which  arise 
from  the  two  jaws  are  much  larger  ;  they  sometimes  grow  to  be 
a  foot  long ;  the  inferior  ones  are  most  formidable  and  inflict 
serious  wounds. 

It  produces  six  or   eight  young  ones  at  a  birth  every  year ; 
which  are  striped  black  and  white. 

6.  The  Domestic  Hog,  varies  in  size,  in  the  length  of  its  ex- 
tremities, in  the  direction  of  its  ears  and  in  colour ;  it  is  white 
or   black,  or  reddish,   or  variegated :  its  fecundity  is  much  in- 
creased by  domestication,  the  sow  producing  two  litters  every 
year  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  pigs  each.     The  hog  continues  to 
grow  for  five  or  six  years,  and  may  live  twenty.     It  is  very 
voracious,  and  does  not  even  spare  its  own  young.     This  is  one 
of  the  most  useful  of  animals,  on  account  of  the  quality  of  its 
flesh  and   lard,  and  from  the  facility  of  feeding,  and  multiplying 
it.     There  are  many  varieties. 

7.  The  RHINOCEROS,— (Plate  5.  Jig.  3.)  is  a  large,  dull  animal, 
remarkable  for  the  great  thickness  of  its  skin,  and  the  solid  horn 
it  carries  on  its  nose,  the  bones  of  which   are  very  thick,  and 
united  in  the  form  of  an  arch  to  sustain  it.     This  horn,  which  is  of 
a  fibrous,  horny  nature,  adheres  to  the  skin  and  seems  to  be  com- 
posed of  agglutinated  hairs ;  it  has  no  bony  axis   in  its  centre 
like  the  horns  of  the  ruminants. 

8.  Animals  of  this  genus  inhabit  the  warmest  parts  of  the  old 
continent  and  are  generally  found  in  places  where  elephants  are 
met  with.     They  seek  shady  and  humid  situations,  and  wallow, 
like  the  Hippopotamus  and  Hog,  to  supple  their  hide.  Their  intel- 
ligence 4s  very  limited,  and  their  nature  is  fierce  and  indomitable. 

9.  Several  species  are  known,  some  of  which  belong  to  India, 
and  the  others  to  Africa. 

10.  TAPIRS  are  animals  which  very  much  resemble  the  Hog, 
but  are  distinguished  from  it  at  first  sight  by  the  small  fleshy 

5.  What  is  the  wild  Hog? 

6.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Domestic  Hog  ?     Why  is  this  a  very  use- 
ful animal  ? 

7.  What  is  the  Rhinoceros  ? 

8.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Rhinoceros  ? 

9.  In  what  parts  of  the  world  is  the  Rhinoceros  found  ? 
10,  What  are  Tapirs? 


FAMILY  OF  SOLTPEDES. 103 

trunk,  formed  by  the  prolongation  of  their  nose,  which  is  suscep- 
tible of  being  elongated  and  shortened,  but  it  is  not  an  organ  of 
prehension  like  that  of  the  elephant. 

1 1 .  The  American  Tapir, —  Tapir  Jlmericanus — which  is  com- 
mon in  humid  places  in  the  warm  countries   of  South  America, 
is  about  the  size  of  a  small  ass.     Its  skin,  which  is  nearly  bare, 
is  brown.     Its  flesh  is  eaten.     A  second  species  inhabits  the  most 
elevated  regions  of  the  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes,  and  has  long, 
black  hair ;  it  seems  to  have  given  rise  to  a  great  many  fabulous 
stories  among  the  Indians.     A  third  species  is  found  in  the  forests 
of  Sumatra  and  the  Malay  Peninsula.  The  griffin  of  the  ancients, 
which  is  generally  regarded  altogether  as  a  fabulous  animal,  might 
have  been  this  latter,  a  little  disfigured  by'  voyagers,  and  to  which 
artists  have  added  wings  and  a  tail  in  architectural  style. 

FAMILY  OF  SOLIPEDES. 

12.  The   Family  of  Solipedes  comprises  all  quadrupeds  that 
have  but  a  single  toe  apparent,  and  consequently  a  single  hooC 
This  family  includes  but  one  genus. 

1 3.  The  genus  HORSE, — ECJUHS,—  comprises  the  Horse  properly 
so  called,  the  Ass,  the  Zebra,  and  several  other  species. 

14.  These  animals  have  six  trenchant  incisors  in  each  jaw, 
which,   in  the  earlier  years  of  life,  have  a  hollow  or  depres- 
sion on  the  crown,  and  on  each  side  of  them   six  molars.     The 
males  have  besides  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  sometimes  in  both,  two 
small  canines   which  are  almost  always  wanting  in  the  female. 
Between  these  canines  and  the  first  molar,  there  is  a  vacant  space, 
(called  barre  in  French,)  in  which  rests  the  bit  by  the  means  of 
which  man  overcomes  and  controls  this  animal.     They  have  a 
projecting  eye  with  a  pupil  in  the  form  of  a  long  square,  the  ear 
is  long  and  moveable,  the   nares  without   muzzle,  the  tongue 
very  soft,  the   sense   of  hearing  acute ;  their  upper  lip  is  very 
moveable  and  serves  them  as  an  instrument  of  prehension ;  the 
whole  body  is  covered  in  a  thick  coat  of  hair,  with  a  mane  on 
the  neck ;  their  tail  is  of  moderate  size  but  often  adorned    with 
long   hair.     Horses   are   essentially   herbivorous,   though   their 
stomach  is  simple  in  form  and  moderate  in  size.     The  Horse  is 
contented  with  the  commonest  grass  when  accustomed  to  it  from 
an  early  period.     He  is  fond  of  dry  pasturages  ;  in  the  stable  he 

11.  What  is  the  American  Tapir  ? 

12.  What  animals  belong  to  the  family  of  Solipedes  ? 

13.  What  animals  are  included  in  the  genus  Horse  ? 

14.  What  is  the  dental  system  of  the  Horse  ?     What  are  the  characters  of 
the  Horse?    Upon  what  does  he  feed  ? 


104  HORSES. 


feeds  on  hay,  luzerne,  trefoil,  vetches,  oats ;  wheat,  barley,  and 
oat  straw,  also  agree  with  him  when  he  gets  at  the  same  time, 
a  portion  of  good  hay  and  grain. 

15.  The  Horse  properly  so  ca lied  is  distinguished   from  other 
species  of  this  genus  by  the  uniform  colour  of  his  robe,  and  by 
his  tail  being  ornamented  with  long  hair  from  its  origin.     He  ex- 
ceeds them  also  in  height  as  well  as  in  the  beauty  of  his  form. 

16.  The  Horse,  the  noble  companion  of  man   in  war  and  the 
labours  of  the  field,  the  arts  and  commerce,  is  the  most  impor- 
tant, and  most  carefully  attended  of  all  the  animals  which  we 
have  brought  under  our  control.     It  is  originally  from   the  great 
plains   of  central  Asia,   but  is  now  spread  in    great    numbers 
throughout  almost  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  no  longer  exists  in 
the  wild  state,  except  in  places  where  horses,  previously  domesti- 
cated, have  been  left  at  liberty,  as  in  Tartary  and  America ;  the 
importation  of  these  animals  into  the  latter  country  dates  only 
about  three  hundred  years  back,  and,  nevertheless,    wild  horses 
exist  there  in  immense  numbers.     It  is  asserted  that  troops  con- 
sisting of  more  than  ten  thousand  individuals  aie   occasionally 
met  with. 

17.  The  Horse  may  live  about  thirty  years;  but  when  old,  he 
loses  nearly  all  his  estimable  qualities ;  before  he  attains  four  or 
five  years,  he  cannot  be  mounted  or  employed  in  draught;  for 
this  reason,  it  will  be  perceived,  it  is  very  important  to  be  able 
to  ascertain  the  age  of  horses ;  up  to  the    age  of  about  eight 
years  it  may  be  known  with  certainty,  by  the  successive  changes 
which  occur  in  the  dental  system,  but  beyond  this  period,  there  is 
no  positive  sign  of  their  age,  and  they  say,  they  mark  no  longer, 
because  at  that  time,  the  hollows  on  the  surface  of  their  incisors 
have  been  effaced. 

18.  Horses  vary  very  much  from  each  other  in  size,  the  beauty 
of  their  form,  and  in  their  speed,  and  several  different  races  are 
distinguished  amongst  them.    The  most  celebrated  is  the»tfra6mw, 
which  is  small  in  size  but  admirable  in  form,  and  extremely  swift. 
The  English  horses  owe  their  good  qualities  in  a  great  measure 
to  their  mixture  with  the  Arabian.     In  France,  there  are  several 
races  which  are  more  or  less  prized;  the  horses  of  Limousin  are 
most  esteemed  for  the  saddle;  the  Norman  race  is  equally  prized, 

15.  How  is  the  Hoi  se  properly  so  called,  distinguished  from  oilier  species 
of  thin  gen os  ? 

16.  Where  is  the  Horse  originally  from  ?     Does  the  Horse  exist  in  a  wild 
state  ? 

17.  To  what  age  do  Horses  live?     By  what  means  may  we  ascertain  the 
age  of  Horses  ? 

18.  What  races  of  Horses  are  most  esteemed  ? 


ASS.— ZEBRA.— COUAGGA.—ONAGGA. 105 

but  is  not  so  fine ;  the  race  of  Bretagne  is  principally  employed 
in  posting,  and  the  race  of  Boulogne  for  draught  and  similar 
service. 

19.  The  .Ass, — Equus  rfsinus, — is  known  by  his  size,  which  is 
generally  smaller  than  that  of  the  horse ;  by  his  long  ears ;  by  the 
black  cross  over  his  shoulders,  and  by  the  tuft  of  hair  which  termi- 
nates the  tail.     Though  not  so  powerful  as  the  horse,  but  being 
more  patient  and  quiet,  he  is  not  less  valuable  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  country.    Comparatively,  he  is  stronger  and  hardier  than 
his  happy  rival.     Subject  to  fewer  diseases,  his  life  is  sustained  at 
little  cost.     He  is  only  particular  in  his  drink,  and  requires  pure, 
limpid  water.     He  is  three  or  four  years  before  he  attains  his  full 
growth,  and  lives  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  years ;  he  sleeps 
less  than  the  horse. 

20.  When  young,  the  Ass  is  animated  and  sprightly  ;  but  bad 
treatment  soon  destroys  his  vivacity  :  he  becomes  slow,  stupid, 
and  headstrong. 

21.  The  milk  of  the  Ass,  which  very  closely  resembles  that  of 
woman,  is  considered  to  be  a  wholesome  diet,  and  even  a  remedy 
in  some  diseases,  such  as  phthisis. 

22.  The  Zebra, — Equus  Zebra, —  which  is  very  like  the  Ass  in 
form  and  proportions,  is  one  of  the  most  elegant  and  most  intrac- 
tible  of  animals.     His  skin  has  the  softness  of  satin,  and  is  adorned 
with  beautiful  ribbon-like  stripes.     In  the  female  these  stripes  are 
alternately  black  and  white ;  and  in  the  male,  brown  and  yellow. 
The  body  is  round  and  full ;  the  limbs  are  remarkably  slender. 
His  voice  resembles  the  sound  of  a  hunter's  horn.     The  Zebra  is 
found   principally  in  the  southern  parts   of  Africa  ;    numerous 
troops  are  often  seen  grazing  on  the  extensive  plains  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope. 

23.  [The  Ct)uagqa,—Eqtms  Quaccha, — which   resembles    the 
Horse  more  than  the  Zebra,  is  striped  only  on  the  shoulders  and 
back.     His  name  is  derived  from   his  cry,  which  resembles  the 
barking  of  a  dog.     The  colonists  of  the  vicinity  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  have  accustomed  it  to  harness,  and  keep  it  with  their 
herds,  which,  they  say,  it  protects  from  hyenas  and  other  ferocious 
animals  of  the  same  size. 

24.  The    Onagga,—E(juns    Montanns, — or   mountain   horse, 
which   has  not    been  very  long  known  to  naturalists,  is  smaller 

19.  What  is  the  Ass  ?     What  are  his  ciiaracters  ? 

20.  What  effect  has  bad  treatment  on  the  Ass? 

21.  What  are  (he  peculiarities  of  Ass's  milk  ? 

22.  What  is  the  Zebra  ?     Where  is  the  Zebra  found  ? 

23.  What  is  the  Couagga?    For  what  purpose  is  it  used  If 

24.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Onagga  ? 


106 ORDER  OF  RUMINANT! A. 

than  the  Ass,  and  is  marked  on  the  head,  neck  and  trunk  by  alter- 
nately wide  and  narrow  black  stripes  upon  an  Isabella  or  bay 
ground.  His  legs  and  tail  are  white.] 


LESSON    X. 

ORDER  OP  RUMINANTIA — Zoological  Characters. —  Peculiarities 
of  their  organization. — Humiliation. 

RUMINANTS  WITHOUT  HORNS. — Genus  of  Camels. — Camels  proper- 
ly so  called. — Peculiarities  of  organization. — Habits  and  uses. 
— Camel  with  one  hump,  Camel  with  two  humps. — llamas, 
(Guanaco,Victniia) — Genus  of  Musks. 

RUMINANTS  WITH  HORNS.  —  Genus  of  Slags.  —  Deer.  —  Habits, 
(Fallow  Deer,  Common  Stag,  Roebuck,  Rein-Deer,  Elk.) — 
Genus  of  Giraffes.  — Genus  of  Antelopes,  (Gazelle,  Chamois.) 
— Genus  of  Goats,  (Wild  Goat,  Bouquetin  or  Ibex,  Domestic 
Goat.) 


ORDER     OF     RUMINANTIA. 


1.  All  the  animals  belonging  to  this  order,  seem  to  have  been 
constructed  on  the  same  model.     Their  name  is  derived  from  the 
circumstance  of  chewing  the  cud. 

2.  They  all  have  incisors  only  in  the  lower  jaw,  always  eight 
in  number. 

3.  They  have  on  each  foot  two  toes  enveloped  in  two  hoofs, 
which  apply  one  to  the  other,  by  their  internal  sides,  so  that  their 
feet  have  the  appearance  of  being  cleft  or  cloven. 

4.  The  two  bones  of  the  metacarpus,  and  of  the  metatarsus, 
are  joined  in  a  single  one,  which  is  called  the  canon  bone. 

5.  They  are  all  herbivorous  and  have  four  stomachs.  (  Plate  6. 
fg.  4.  and  5.)  The  first  and  largest  is  called  the  paunch  (rumen,) 
the   second    is  named  honey-comb,  or  bonnet,  (reticiilttw,)  the 
third  the  leaflet,  the  Manyplies,  or  the  Omasum,  (psalterium,)  and 
the  fourth  the  Caillette  (abomasus,)  or  rennet-bag. 

1.  From    what   circumstance   do  animals  of  the  order  of  Ruminantia 
derive  the  name? 

2.  What  is  remarked  of  their  incisor  teeth  ? 

3.  How  many  toes  have  Ruminants  ? 

4.  What  is  the  Canon  bone  ? 

5.  What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  digestive  apparatus  of  the  Ruminantia? 


RUMINATION.  107 


6.  When  these  animals  feed  they  swallow  their  aliments  at 
first  without  having  chewed  them,     These  substances  then  enter 
into  the  paunch  and  there  accumulate ;  thence  they  pass  into  the 
second  stomach  (reticulum ;)  but  after  having  remained  there  for 
a  certain  time  they  are  carried  back  again  into  the  mouth   to  be 
chewed,  and  afterwards  swallowed  again ;  and  when  they  descend 
again  into  the  stomach,  they  no  more  enter  the  paunch  or  reticu- 
lum, but  go  directly  to  the  mam/plies  (third  stomach)  from  which 
they  pass  into  the  fourth  stomach  or  rennet-bag,  where  they  are 
digested. 

7.  At  first,  one  is  astonished  to  see  food  pass  at  one  time  into 
the  paunch  and  reticulum,  at  another  into  the  many  piles,  (third 
stomach,)  according  as  it  has  been  swallowed  for  the  first  time, 
or  after  it  has  been  regurgitated,  and  one  is  tempted  to  attribute 
this  phenomenon  to  a  sort  of  tact  with  which  the  openings  of 
these  different  digestive  pouches  seem  to  be  endowed.     But  there 
is  nothing  of  the  kind,  this  result  being  the  necessary  consequence 
of  the  anatomical  arrangement  of  the  parts.     The  oesophagus 
terminates  below  in  a  species  of  gutter  or  longitudinal  slit,  which 
occupies  the  upper  part  of  the  reticulum,  (second  stomach)  and 
the  paunch,  and  is  continued  to  the  manyplies.     Ordinarily,  the 
edges  of  the  slit,  of  which  we  have  just  spoken,  lie  close  together, 
and  then  this  gutter  constitutes  a  perfect  tube  which  leads  from 
the  oesophagus  into   the  manyjjlies  (third  stomach ;)  but   if  the 
alimentary  ball  swallowed  by  the  animal  is  solid,  and  somewhat 
large,  it  distends  this  tube,  and  separates  the  edges  of  the  open- 
ing through  which  the  oesophagus  communicates   with   the  two 
first   stomachs :    the  food  falls  into  these  pouches ;  but   if  the 
alimentary  ball  be  soft  and  pulpy,  as  is  the  case  when  mastica- 
tion has  been  completed,  the  matter  swallowed,  enters  into  this 
same  tube  without  separating  the  edges  of  the  slit,  and  reaches  the 
third  stomach. 

8.  It  is  by  this  mechanism  that  unchewed  food  which  the  ani- 
mal swallows  for  the  first  time,  stops  in  the  paunch  and  reticulum  ; 
while,  after  it  has  been  chewed  a  second  time  and  well  mixed 
with  saliva,  it  penetrates  directly  into  the  manyplies. 

6.  What  becomes   of  the  food    wh<  n  first   swal'owed  by   Ruminants? 
After  it  has  been   for  a  time  in  the  second  stomach,  what  becomes  of  it? 
What  becomes  of  the  food  after  it  has  been  swallowed  a  second  time  ? 

7.  What  is  the  reason  why  food  swallowed  thcjirst  time  does  not  enter 
the  third  and  fourth  stomach  ?     Why  does  no*,  the  food  enter  the  first  and 
second  stomach  after  it   has  been  chewed  and  swallowed  a  second  time  ? 
What  is  the  anatomical  arrangement  of  the  stomachs  and  oesophagus  of  the 
Rurninai  tia? 

8.  What  is  the  effect  of  this  arrangement  ? 

10 


108  DIVISION  OF  THE  ORDER  OF  RUMINANTS. 

9.  The  mechanism  by  which  aliment  accumulated  in  the  first 
stomach  is  carried  back  to  the  mouth  is  also  very  simple.    When 
regurgitation  begins,   the  reticulum  contracts   and  presses  the 
alimentary  mass  against  the  slit-like  opening  which  terminates 
the  oesophagus ;  then  this  opening  enlarges  so  as  to  seize  a  pinch 
or  portion  of  the  alimentary  mass,  compresses  it  and  forms  it 
into  a  small  pellet  which  engages  in  the  oesophagus,  the  fibres  of 
which  contract  successively  from  below  upwards,  to  push  for- 
ward the  new  alimentary  ball  into  the  mouth. 

10.  Ruminants  are  large  animals  without  much  intelligence, 
but  which,  nevertheless,  render  immense  service  to  man  :  they 
furnish    him   with  nearly  all  the  meat  that  he  eats ;  their  milk 
furnishes  us  excellent  food;  their  fat,  which  is  harder  than  that 
of  other  quadrupeds,  and  named  tallow  is  applied  to  many  pur- 
poses in  the  arts  and  domestic  economy ;  their  skin,  prepared  by 
tanning,  constitutes  nearly  all  the  leather  we  use  ;  finally,  their 
horns,  their  bones,  their  blood,  and  even  their  intestines  which 
are  manufactured  into  cords,  are  useful  to  us  ;  when  living,  many 
of  these  animals,  employed  as  beasts   of  burthen,  are  equally 
valuable  both  in  commerce  and  agriculture. 

11.  This  order  may  be  divided  into  two  sections:  the  first 
comprises  Ruminants  without  horns,  and  the  second,  Ruminants 
with  horns,  either  in  both  sexes,  or  in  the  male  only. 

Ruminants  without  Horns. 

12.  Ruminants,  which  are  entirely  without  horns,  also  differ 
from  other  Ruminants  in  their  teeth,  and  somewhat  resemble  the 
Pachydermata.     They  are  divided  into  two  small  tribes  which 
may  be  recognised  by  the  following  characters : 

(Tribes.) 

RUMINANTS  WITHOUT  HORNS.     \  Six  incisor  tedh     ....     CAMEL. 
The  lower  jaw  provided  with  )  Eight  incisor  teeth      -     .     -     MUSK. 

13.  The,  Tribe  of  Camels  is  composed  of  Camels  propely  so 
called,  and  Lamas.     These  animals  differ  from  all  other  Rumin- 
ants in  the  number  of  their  incisors,  which  is  eight  in  all  the  rest 
of  this  order,  and  in  their  molars,  of  which  we  count  from  twenty 

9.  By  what  process  is  food  carried  back  fro  a  the  second  stomach  to  the 
mouth  ? 

10.  What  are  Ruminants?     In  what  particulars  are  they  useful  to  man  ? 

11.  Howls  the  order  of  Ruminantia  divided? 

12.  Into  what  tribes  are  Ruminants  without  horns  divided  ?     How  many 
incisor  teeth  have  Camels?     How  many  incisor  teeth  have  Musks? 

13.  What  animals  are  included  in  the  tribe  of  Camels?  How  many  molar 
leeth  have  they  ?     What  are  the  general  characters  of  Camels? 


CAMELS.— LAMAS.  109 

to  twenty-two  instead  of  twenty-four.  The  conformation  of  their 
extremities  is  equally  characteristic,  for  their  feet  are  not  cloven, 
and  they  have  very  small  hoofs  ;  the  neck  is  very  long,  their  limbs 
badly  proportioned,  and  their  upper  lip  inflated  and  cleft.  Their 
gentleness  is  remarkable. 

14.  CAMELS  PROPERLY  so  CALLED, — Caaielus,—  are  distinguished 
by  the  enormous  humps  of  fat   they  have  on  the  back;  which 
makes  them  appear  hump-backed,  and  by  the  structure  of  their 
feet  which  are  admirably  adapted  for  travelling  on  the  sand,  so 
common  in  the  regions  inhabited  by  these  animals  :  in  fact,  their 
two  toes  are  joined  underneath  nearly  to  their  ends  by  a  thick, 
flexible  sole. 

15.  These  animals  belong  to  the  warm  parts  of  the  old  conti- 
nent.    They  are  celebrated    for  their   docility,  for  the  faculty 
which  they  possess  of  sustaining  long  journeys,  though  heavily 
laden,  and  particularly  for  their  great  gentleness      Camels,  with- 
out which,  perhaps  man  never  could  have  traversed  the  vast, 
sandy  deserts  which   are  found  in  Asia  and  Africa,  have  the 
faculty  of  passing  several  days  without  drinking,  which  is  proba- 
bly owing  to  the  presence  of  a  number  of  cells  in  the  parietes  of 
the  paunch,  where  the  water  is  retained  or  continually  produced  ; 
on  this  account  they  have  been  called  ships  oj  the  desert. 

16.  The  two  principal  species  of  the  genus  of  camels  are;  the 
Bactrian  Camel,  or  Camel  with  two  humps,  and  Arabian  Camel, 
or  Camel  with  one  hump,  which  is  called  the  Dromedary, — 
Came lus  Dromedarhis. 

"  The  variety  to  which  the  name  of  Dromedary  properly  belongs, 
with  the  weight  of  a  man,  only,  can  perform  very  lengthened 
journeys,  and  at  a  very  rapid  quick  pace.  Several  of  these  attend 
the  caravans  when  crossing  any  of  the  African  deserts,  perform- 
ing the  offices  of  scouts  and  keeping  a  look  out  both  for  danger 
from  the  wandering  tribes,  and  for  the  approach  to  the  water 
stations.  These  will  travel  from  seventy  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty  miles  in  the  twenty  four  hours. 

"  It  is  related  by  a  modern  traveller,'  That  one  of  these  animals 
will  in  one  night,  and  through  a  level  country,  traverse  as  much 
ground  as  any  simple  horse  can  perform  in  ten.  It  was  often 
affirmed  to  him  by  the  Arabs  and  Moors,  that  it  makes  nothing  of 
holding  its  rapid  pace,  which  is  a  most  violent  hard  trot,  for  four 
and  twenty  hours  upon  a  stretch,  without  showing  the  least  sign 

14.  How  are  Camels  properly  so  called  recognised  ? 

15.  What  is  the  general  character  of  the  Camel  ?     What  peculiar  faculty 
is  possessed  by  the  Camel  ?     How  do  you  account  for  the  Camel  being  able 
to  pass  several  days  without  drinking  ? 

16.  What  are  the  principal  species  of  the  genus  Camel? 


GUANACO.—  VICUNIA.—  MUSK. 


of  weariness,  or  inclination  to  bait,  and  that  having  then  swallowed 
a  ball  or  two  of  a  sort  of  paste,  made  up  of  barley,  and  perhaps 
a  little  powder  of  dates  among  it,  with  a  bowl  of  water  or  camel's 
milk,  if  to  be  had,  and  which  the  courier  seldom  fails  to  be  pro- 
vided with  in  skins,  as  well  as  for  the  sustenance  of  himself  as  of 
his  pegasus,  the  indefatigable  animal  will  seem  as  fresh  as  at  first 
setting  out,  and  ready  to  continue  running  at  the  same  scarce 
credible  rate  for  as  many  hours  longer,  and  so  on  from  one  ex- 
tremity of  the  African  desert  to  the  other.'  " 

17.  The  Bactrian  Camel,  —  Camelus  Bactrianus,  —  is  about 
seven  feet  high  to  the  shouders  :  he  is  much  more  powerful  than 
the  Dromedary  in  proportion  to  his  size. 

1  8.  The  LAMAS,  —  Jlitclnnia,  —  are  the  camels  of  the  new  world, 
but,  if  they  are  less  ugly  than  those  of  Asia,  they  possess  neither 
their  size  nor  strength.  Their  proportions  are  lighter  :  they  have 
no  humps,  and  their  toes  not  being  joined,  they  retain  their 
mobility  which  enables  them  to  climb  rocks  and  mountains  with 
the  agility  of  Goats.  Two  species  are  known:  the  Guanaco 
and  V  icy  nia. 

19.  [The  Guanaco,—  Camelus  Llama,—  (Plate  5,  fig.  5.)—  is 
met  with  in  the  high  mountains  of  South  America  ;  it  is  the  size 
of  a  stag,  and  its  coat  is  thick,  and  of  a  chestnut  colour.     A 
variety  of  this  species,  very  long  since  domesticated,  is  known 
under  the  name  of  Lama,  or  Llama.     At  the  time  of  the  con- 
quest of  Peru  by  the  Spaniards,  it  was  the  only  beast  of  burthen 
of  that  country,  and  in  our  day,  it  is  still  employed  for  the  same 
purpose  ;  it  carries  a  load  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds, 
but  makes  very  short  journeys.     Another  variety  of  the  domestic 
Guanaco  is  the  Alpaca,  or  Paco,  the  fleece  of  which  is  composed 
of  long,  woolly  hair,  which,  in  fineness  and  elasticity,  is  not  much 
inferior  to  the  most  beautiful  wool  of  the  goats  of  Thibet. 

20.  The  Vicunia,  (Vicunia,)  —  Camclits    Vicunna,  —  which   is 
rather  larger  than  a  sheep,  is  also  remarkable  for  its  beautifully 
soft,  yellowish,  brown  wool.     It  inhabits  along  the  line   of  per- 
petual snow  of  the  Andes  of  Chile  and  Peru  ;  it  is  actively  hunted 
on  account  of  its  wool  which  is  manufactured  into  valuable  stuffs, 
and  hats.] 

21.  The  Tribe  of  Musks,  —  Moschus,  —  includes  only  one  genus. 
These  are  charming  animals  from  their  elegance  and  lightness  ; 

17.  WhaMs  the  Bactrian  Camel  ? 

18.  What  are  Lamas?     What  are  their  habits?     How  many  species  of 
Lamas  are  known  ? 

19.  What  is  the  Guanaco  ?  Where  is  it  found  ?     Is  it  applied  to  any  use  ? 
What  is  the  Alpaca  or  Paco? 

20.  For  what  is  the  Vicunia  remarkable  ? 

21.  What  are  Musks?    What  genera  belong  to  this  tribe  ? 


RUMINANTS  WITH  HORNS. 111 

all  belong  to  central  or  southern  Asia ;  they  have  no  incisors  in 
the  upper  jaw,  nor  canines  in  the  lower,  but  are  distinguished  by 
a  long  canine  on  each  side  of  the  upper  jaw  which,  in  the  male, 
descends  upon  the  lower  lip  and  protrudes  from  the  mouth.  To 
this  genus  belongs  the  species  named,  the  Musk, — Mosc/ius  Mos- 
cliiferus, — which  is  found  in  Thibet ;  it  is  the  size  of  a  goat :  it 
furnishes  musk,  which  substance  is  found  with  the  male  in  a 
pouch  beneath  the  belly. 

Ruminants  with  Horns. 

22.  All  the  animals  comprised  in  this  section,  of  the  male  sex 
at  least,  have  two  horns  the  centre  of  which  is  formed  by  pro- 
jections of  greater  or  less  length  of  the  frontal  bone.     Three  kinds 
of  horns  are  distinguished  in  Ruminants. 

23.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  Giraffe,  they  are  enveloped  in  a  hairy 
skin,  which  is  continuous  with  that  of  the  head,  and  do  not  perish 
or  shed. 

24.  At  other  times,  as  is  seen  in  the  genus  of  STAGS,. the  above 
mentioned  projections  or  processes,  covered  for  a  time  by  hairy 
skin  like  that  of  the  rest  of  the  head,  have  at  their  base  a  ring  of 
bony  tubercles  which,  by  enlarging,  compress  and  obliterate  the 
nutritious  vessels  of  this  skin.     It  dries,  and  is  removed :  the  bony 
prominence,  thus  laid  bare  ,  separates  at  the  end  of  a  certain  time 
from  the  cranium,  and  falls,  leaving  the   animal  without  horns : 
but  he  replaces  them  with  new  ones,  which  become  still  more 
developed  than  those  they  have  replaced,  and  in  their  turn  they 
also  fall,  from  the  influence  of  the  same  causes.     Those  bony 
horns  which  are  liable  to  periodical  changes,  bear  the  name  of 
deciduous  horns,  (antlers.) 

25.  Again,  the  bony  part  of  the  horns  is  covered  in  a  case  of 
elastic  substance  which  grows  by  layers  through  the  whole  period 
of  life ;  the  horns  of  the  ox  are  of  this  kind ;  they  never  fall. 
Those  Ruminants  which  have  similar  prominences  or  projections 
are  named,  Ruminants  with  hollow  horns. 

26.  In  the  family  of  Ruminants  with  horns,  the  incisor  teeth 
of  the  lower  jaw  are  always  eight  in  number,  and  the  total  num- 
ber of  molars  is  twenty-four  :  the  feet  are  cleft  or  cloven. 

22.  How  are  Ruminants  with  horns  distinguished  ?     How  many  kinds  of 
horns  are  possessed  by  Ruminants  ? 

23.  What  kinds  of  horns  have  Giraffes  ? 

24.  By  what  process  do  Stags  shed  their  horns  ?     What  are  those  horns 
called  which  are  shed  periodically  ? 

25.  vWhat  kind  of  horns  have  Oxen  ? 

26.  What  is  the  number  of  incisor  teeth  in  Ruminants  with  horns  ?  What 
is  the  number  of  their  molars  ? 

10* 


112 DIVISION  OF  RUMINANTS  WITH  HORNS. 

27.  Ruminants  with  horns  are  divided  into  genera  in  the  follow- 
ing manner : 


27.  How  are  Ruminants  with  horns  divided  into  genera  ?  (See  table)  What 
kind  of  horns  has  the  Stag?  What  genera  have  permanent  horns  ?  What 
genus  has  the  horns  covered  with  hairy  skin  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the 
homs  of  the  Antelope  ?  What  kind  of  horns  has  the  Goat?  What  kind  of 
horns  have  Sheep  ?  What  is  the  character  of  the  horns  of  the  Ox  ? 


STAG.— FALLOW  DEER.  113 

--  - 

28.  The  genus  STAG, — Cervus, — includes  all  Ruminants  that, 
in  the  male  sex,  have  deciduous  horns  on  the  head ;  these  horns 
are  always  wanting  in  the  female,  with   the  single  exception  of 
the  species  named  Rein-deer.     All  these  animals  inhabit  forests, 
and  are  fleet  in  the  chase  ;  their  limbs  are  long  and  slender,  the 
body  light  and  round,  the  coat  clean  and  shining :  in  general 
they  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  and  elegance  of  their  forms ; 
ordinarily,  they  shed  their  horns  in  the  spring. 

29.  A  great  number  of  different  species  are  known,  among 
which  we  will  mention,  the  common  Stag,  the  Fallow  Deer,  the 
Roebuck,  the  Rein-Deer,  and  the  Elk. 

30.  The  Stag,  properly  so  called,  the  common  Stag, —  Cervus 
Elephns, — (Plate.  5.  fry.  7.) — is  found  in  forests.     The  female  is 
named  a  Hind  or  Doc,  and  the  young  is  called  a  Fawn.     The 
male  only  has  horns.     At  about  six  months  old  there  is  perceived 
on  the  head  two  tubercles ;  at  this  time  the  animal  is  called  a 
Knnbbcr ;  at  one  year  old  these  tubercles  are  lengthened,  and 
though   simple,  they  are  from  five  to  ten  inches  long.     At  this 
period  the  animal  loses  the  skin  that  covers  them,  the  horns  remain, 
naked  for  sometime  before  they  fall,  and  the  Knobber  takes  the 
name  of  Pricket,  Brock,  or  Stayyurd.     When  the  Fawn  reaches 
his  third  year,  he  loses  the  spikes  or  spears,  and  the  horns  which 
replace  them  ordinarily  have  three  brances  and  are  called  Antlers. 
During  each  succeeding  year  to  the  seventh,  the  horns,  on  being 
reproduced,  have  an  additional  antler,  so  that  the  horns   of  old 
Stags  are  generally  composed  of  seven  branches  which  spring 
from  a  common  stalk. 

31.  This  animal  is  very  delicate  in  his  choice  of  food,    which 
usually  consists  of  herbs  or  young  buds  and  roots  of  different 
trees.     When  his  hunger  is  satisfied,  he  retires  to   the  shade  of" 
some  dense  foliage  and  ruminates,   but  with  more  difficulty  than 
the  cow  or  sheep  ;  he  makes  a  hiccough-sort  of  noise  the  whole 
time  :  his  hearing  and  sense  of  smell  are  very  fine. 

32.  The  Fallow  Deer, — Cervus  Dama,—is  not  so  large  as  the 
Stag ;  he  has  a  longer  tail,  black  above  and  white  below.     His 

28.  Wi  at  animals  belong  to  the  genus  Stag?     Have    all   the  females   of 
this  genus  bom?-?    What  are  the  general  ch  sracters  of  animals  of  this  genus? 

29.  Is  ihere  more  than  one  species  of  :he  genus  Stig? 

30.  Where  is  the  Stag  properly  FO  called  found  ?     What  is  the  female  Stag 
called  ?     What  is  a  Fawn  ?     What  is  the  young  Stag  called  when  its  horns 
are  first  peri  eiv  :d  ?     What  is  the  animal  when  it  is  a  year  eld  ?     When  do 
the  Antlers  appear  ?     What  is  th«  greatest  number  of  Antlers  possessed  by  a 
Stag? 

31.  On  what  does  the  Stag  feed  ? 

32.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Fallow-Deer  ?  Is  this  Deer  found  wild  ? 


114  ROEBUCK.— REIN-DEER.— ELK. 

horns,  in  place  of  being  branched  and  round,  are  flattened  and 
palmate.  The  two  species  dislike  each  other  and  never  dwell  or 
pasture  in  the  same  places.  Fallow-deers  ordinarily  live  twenty 
years,  and  attain  their  full  growth  at  the  end  of  three.  They  are 
rarely  found  wild  ;  they  are  reared  in  parks,  and  are  kept  for  the 
amusement  and  luxury  of  the  great. 

33.  They  browse  more  closely  than  the  Stag,  and  feed  on 
many  vegetables  that  Stags  refuse  to  eat ;  they  are  very  in- 
jurious to  young  trees,  which  they  despoil  of  their  bark. 

34.  The  Roebuck, — Cermis  Cupreolus, — is  of  a  more  or  less 
deep  yellowish  gray,  white  buttock  and  almost  without   tail. 
He  lives  in  the  tall  forests  of  temperate  Europe.     His  horns  are 
six  or  eight  inches  long  ;  they  are  strong,  straight  and  divided  at 
the  extremity  into  three  branches.     The  length  of  the  Roebuck 
rarely  exceeds  three  feet  and  his  height  two  and  a  half.     He  is 
very  animated,  and  his  sense  of  smell  is  very  acute.     The  dura- 
tion of  his  life  is  from  twelve  to  fifteen  years. 

35.  Roebucks  differ  from  all  other  deer  in  their  habits.     They 
do  not  live  in  troops,  but  in  families,     The  female  manifests  the 
highest  degree  of  maternal  solicitude  and  affection ;  she  brings 
forth  two  fawns  at  a  birth,  ordinarily  a  male  and  a  female. 

•  36.  The  Rein- Deer, — Cervus  Tarandvs, — is  of  the  size  of  the 
stag,  but  has  shorter  legs.  The  female,  like  the  male,  has  horns 
which  at  a  certain  age  are  branched,  in  the  form  of  enlarged  den- 
ticulate palms.  (Plate  5.  fig.  8.)  The  people  of  the  northern 
nations  employ  them  in  drawing  sledges  and  carrying  burthens, 
and  eat  their  flesh  arid  milk,  Their  activity  is  such  that  two 
Rein-Deers  harnessed  to  a  sledge  will  travel  from  forty  to  fifty 
leagues  in  a  single  day. 

37.  The  Elk, — Cervus  dices,— (Moose  Deer,)  is  the  largest 
of  all  the  animals  of  this  genus ;  his  stature  sometimes  exceeds  that 
of  a  horse.  His  horns  which  stand  out  from  the  sides  of  the  head, 
form  two  flattened  plates,  deeply  denticulated  on  the  anterior 
edge ;  their  weight  sometimes  reaches  fifty  pounds ;  and  to  sup- 
port them  nature  has  given  this  animal  a  shorter  and  stouter  neck 
than  any  other  deer :  he  is  nevertheless,  taller  than  most  of  them, 
which  forces  him,  when  grazing  on  the  ground,  either  to  kneel  or 
spread  his  feet;  but  he  feeds  principally  on  leaves  and  high  grass. 
He  delights  in  low  forests  and  swamps,  and  inhabits  the  north  of 

33.  Upon,  what  does  the  Fallow-Deer  feed  ? 

34.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Roebuck  ? 

35.  What  are  the  habits  of  Roebucks  ?    , 

36.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Rein-deer  ?     To  what  purpose  is  this 
animal  applied  ? 

37.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Elk  ?    What  are  his  habits  ? 


GIRAFFE.— ANTELOPES— GAZELLE.— CHAMOIS.         115 

Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  He  is  a  heavy  animal,  and  is  far  from 
possessing  the  grace  and  beauty  that  generally  belong  to  the 
Deers. 

38.  The  genus  GIRAFFE, — Cameleopardalis, — is  distinguished 
from  all  others  by  the  horns,  which  are  conical,  and  always 
covered  with  hairy  skin  ;  they  are  never  shed,  and  exist  in  both 
sexes.  (Plate  5.  fiy.  6.)  Only  one  species  is  known.     The  Giraffe, 
whose  height   when  full  grown,  from  the  top  of  the  head  to  the 
fore  feet,  is  about  seventeen  feet,  has  the  skin  beautifully  spotted 
brown  on  a  white  ground.     His  walk  is  neither  clumsy  nor  disa- 
greeable, but  there  is  something  in  his  trot  that  is  ridiculous;  his 
favourite  food  is   the  leaf  of  acacia  and  ash  trees.     When  he 
browses  on  the  ground,  the  length  of  his  legs  forces  him  to  spread 
them  in  order  to  reach  his  pasture.     The  Giraffe  inhabits  Africa. 
The  one,  whose  head  is  copied  in  the  plate,  was  taken  at  Sanaar. 

39.  The  genus  of  ANTELOPES  is  placed  at  the  head  of  the  group 
of  Ruminants  with  hollow  horns,  or  horns  with  sheaths  ;  these 
animals  for  the  most  part  resemble  stags  in  their  light  forms  and 
swiftness.     Amongst  the  numerous  species  which  are   spread 
through  both  continents,  we  will  mention : 

40.  The    Gazelle, — Antelope    Dorcas, — is   of  the   size   of  the 
Roebuck,  and  possesses  an  elegant  form ;  the  horns  are  black, 
round,  and  thick ;  the  eye  beautiful,  and  its  look  very  soft.     It 
lives  in  very  numerous  troops  and  inhabits  the  north  of  Africa. 

41.  The  Chamois, — Antelope  /hipicapra, — (Plate  5,  fig.  9.)— 
is  of  the  size  of  a  large  goat,  but  has  shorter  legs  and  a  stouter 
body  than  common  antelopes,  a  deep  brown  coat  with  a  black 
stripe  descending  from  the  eye  along  the  muzzle.     These  animals 
are  never  contented  except  among  the  rocks,  on  precipices,  where 
they  can  be  sheltered  from  the  rays  of  the  sun.     Their  agility  is 
surprising ;  they  venture  upon  almost  perpendicular  rocks  from 
twenty  to  thirty  feet  in  height,  without  any  means  of  insuring 
their  footing :  they  fly  rather  than  run. 

42.  Animals  of  the  genus  of  GOATS, — Copra, — have  the  horns 
directed  upwards  and  backwards,  the  chin  is  generally  furnished 
with  a  long  beard  and  the  chanfrin  is  concave.     All  the  species 
of  this  genus  belong  to  Europe  or  Asia,  and  live  in  small  families 
on  steep  mountains,  where  they  display  astonishing  agility. 

38.  How  is  the  genus  Giraffe  distinguished  from  other  Ruminants?    What 
are  the  characters  of  the  Giraffe  ?     Where  is  this  animal  found  ? 

39.  Whut  are  Antelopes  ? 

40.  What  is  the  Gazelle? 

41.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  Chamois? 

42.  What  are  the  distinguishing  characters  of  Goats  ? 


116 GOATS. 

43.  The  jEgagre  or  Wild  Goat, — Capra  ^Egagrus, — (Plate 
5.  fig.  10.)  seems  to  be  the  original  stock  of  all  the   varieties  of 
our  domestic  goats;  it  is  distinguished  by  having  horns  which 
are  trenchant  in  front  and  very  large  in  the  male,  while  they  are 
short  and"  sometimes  entirely  wanting  in  the  female.      It  lives  in 
troops  on  the  mountains  of  Persia,  and  perhaps  also  of  the  Alps. 
The  Oriental  Bezoar  is  a  concretion  which  is  found  in  its  intes- 
tines. 

44.  The  Bouquetin,  or  Ikes; — Capra  Ibex, — is  another  species 
of  wild  goat ;  the  male  has  large  horns  which  are  square  in  front, 
and  marked  by  transverse  and  projecting  knots ;  they  are  sHort 
or  wanting  in  the  female ;  his  colour  is  yellow  above,  white  be- 
low, and  he  has  a  black  stripe  upon  the  back.     He  inhabits  the 
summits  of  lofty  mountains  in  the  old  world. 

45.  The    Domestic   Goat, —  Capia   Hircus, — which   seems  to 
have  descended  from  the  Wild  Goat,  or  from  a  mixture  of  that 
species  and  the  Ibex,  is  found  throughout  Europe,  and  indeed,  is 
met  with  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  earth,  for  it  is  an  animal  that 
costs  little  for  maintenance,  and  yields  large  profits.     It   seems, 
however,  to  be  more  fond  of  the  mountains  and  steep  rocks  than, 
cultivated  fields.     Its  favourite  food  is  the  buds  of  young  trees. 
It  is  capable  of  enduring  the  greatest  degree  of  atmospheric  heat  j 
the  tempest  does  not  alarm,  nor  rain  incommode  it. 

46.  The  milk  of  the  goat  is  rich,  nourishing,  and  medicinal. 
The  young  is  called  a  kid,  the  flesh  of  which  is  as  much  esteemed 
by  some  persons  as  that  of  a  lamb. 

47.  [Certain  e!s%tic  races  furnish  a  most  valuable  down  or  fur. 
Those  of  Thibet  called  Cashmere  goats,  are  the  most  remarkable 
in  this  respect :  it  is  from  their  wool  that  the  beautiful  shawls  of 
the  East  are  manufactured,  which  are  so  much  used  by  the  Turks, 
and  the  imitation  of  which,  for  some  years  past,  has  become  an 
important  branch  of  industry  in  France.     The  goats  of  Angora, 
also,  a  great  number  of  which  are  raised  in  Asia  Minor,  have  an 
extremely  fine  fleece,  and  those  of  the  table  land  of  Kirgis  almost 
rival  the  goats  of  Thibet.     Unsuccessful  attempts  have  been  made 
to  introduce  them  into  Europe. 

48.  Gloves  of  a  fine  kind  are  made  of  Goat  skins  prepared 
by  maceration,  and  it  is  from  these  skins  that  real  Morocco 

43.  What  is  the  wild  Goat?     What  is  Bezoar  ? 

44.  What  is  the  Ibex  ? 

45.  What  are  the  habits  of  the  Domestic  Goat? 

46.  What  is  a  Kid  ? 

47.  For  what  are  Goats  of  Cashmere  most  valued  ? 

48.  To  what  purposes  are  Goat  skins  applied  ? 


SHEEP.  117 


leather  is  manufactured,  being  supposed  to  take  the  dye  better 
than  those  of  sheep.  Cordovan,  another  kind  of  leather,  is  pre- 
pared from  Goat  skins,  a  manufacture  that  is  extensively  carried 
on  in  Peru.] 


LESSON    XI. 

Genus  of  Sheep,  (Jlrgali,  Mouflon,  Domestic  Sheep.) — Wool. — 
Merinos. — Genus  of  the  Ox,  (Common  Ox,  Jluroch,  Buffalo, 
Bison,  Yack.)—Use  of  Oxen.— Milk.— Butter. —Cheese. — 
Leather. 

ORDER  OP  CETACEA. — Zoological  Characters. —  Peculiarities  of 
Organization. — Habits. — Division  into  two  Families. — Her- 
bivorous Cetacea. — Manati. — Ordinary  Cetacea. — Apparatus 
of  the  Blowers. — Genus  of  Dolphins,  (Dolphin,  Porpoise.) — 
Genus  of  Narwhals. — Genus  of  Cachalots. — Organization. — 
Habits. — Spermaceti. —  Genus  of  Whales. — Organization  and 
Habits. —  Whalebone. — Fat. —  Uses. —  Whale  Fishing. 

1.  The  genus  SHEEP, — Om, -is  composed  of  animals  whose 
horns  are  directed  at  first  backwards,  and  then  incline  spirally, 
more  or  less  forwards ;  they  are  without  a  beard,   and    have  a 
convex  chanfrin ;  in  other  respects  they  do  not  differ  very  much 
from  goats. 

Of  the  different  species  of  the  genus  sheep,  we  will  mention : 

2.  The  Jlrgali  of  Siberia, — Ovis  JLmmon — (Plate  5.  fig.   11.) 
The  male  of  this  species  has  very  large  horns,  which  are  trian- 
gular at  their  base,  rounded  at  the  angles,  flattened  in   front, 
striated  behind:  the  female  has  compressed  horns  in  the  form  of 
a  scythe ;  the  spring  coat  is  smooth  :  of  a  grayish,  fawn  colour, 
while  that  of  winter  is  hard,  thick,  and  reddish  gray,  with  a  white 
or  whitish  muzzle,  throat  and  belly ;  the  tail  is  very  short. 

3.  This  animal,  which,  it  seems,  should  be  considered  as  the 
parent  and   stock   of  all   varieties   of  the   domestic  Sheep,   is 
found  in  great  numbers  in  Kamtschatka,  in  all  the  mountainous 
regions  of  Central  Asia  and  on  the  highest   mountains   of  Bar- 
bary,  of  Corsica,  and  of  Greece.     It  grows  to  be  as  large   as  a 
deer :  it  is  an  agile,  active  animal,  with  a  very  delicate  sense  of 
smell,  and  is  taken  with  very  great  difficulty.     Its   flesh  is   very 
much  esteemed  by  the  natives  of  Kamtschatka. 

1.  What  kind  of  animals  belong  to  the  genus  of  Sheep? 

2.  What  are  the  the  specific  characters  of  the  Argali  ? 

3.  What  animal  is  supposed  to  be  the  original  stock  of  common  Sheep  ? 
Where  is  the  Argali  found  ? 


118  SHEEP. 


4.  The  Mouflon   of  Sardinia, — Ovis   Musimon. — (Plate   5. 
jig.  12.)  which  is  found  in  Europe,  Africa,  and  America,  differs 

from  the  Jlrgali  in  never  growing  to  the  same  size :  the  female 
rarely  has  horns,  and  when  they  do  exist,  they  are  very  small. 
There  are  varieties  of  the  Mouflon  which  are  partly  or  entirely 
black;  and  others  that  are  more  or  less  white.  This  animal  lives 
in  troops. 

5.  The   Domestic   Sheep, —  Ovis  Jiries: — when  young,  it  is 
called  a  lamb,  the  female,  a  sheep,  and  the  male  a  ram  ;  this  ani- 
mal is  too  well  known  to  require  us  to  enter  into  details  upon  its 
habits  or  zoological  characters.     It  is  reared  in  numerous  flocks, 
for  the  sake  of  the  fleece,  which  consists  of  crisped  hair  called 
wool,  and  is  sheared  every  year.     It  is  manufactured  into  stuffs, 
cloth,  &c.     The  fat  of  these  animals,  which  is  white  and  brittle, 
is  made  into  candles ;  the  intestines  twisted  and  dried,  form  cat- 
gut ;  and  their  excrement  affords  a  warm  compost  which  con- 
tributes powerfully  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil.     The  skin, 
freed  of  its  wool,  is  manufactured  into  various  sorts  of  soft  leather, 
used  for  making  gloves,  lining  shoes,  &c.,  and  prepared  by  other 
processes,  it  is  known  as  chamois  leather,  parchment,  vellum,  fyc. 
Merino  sheep,  are  remarkable  for  the  fineness  of  their  wool. 
Formerly,  their  exportation  from  Spain  was  prohibited ;  but  they 
are  now  carried  to  all  parts  of  Europe,  and  the  United  States. 
The  first  Merinos  were  imported  into  France  in  1776,  and  there 
are  now  in  that  country  about  500,000,  without  counting  the 
mixed  breeds. 

6.  The  shearing  of  sheep  takes  place  every  year  about  the 
month  of  May,  June,  or  July,  when,  on  separating  the  locks  of 
wool,   a  new   growth   is  perceived.      Sometimes,  the  wool   is 
washed  on  the  back  of  the  animal  before  it  is  cut ;  but  more  fre- 
quently it  is  cut  without  washing,  because  the  greasiness  which 
it  possesses  protects  it  from  the  attacks  of  insects. 

7.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  in  France  thirty  millions  of 
sheep,   which  yield  annually  about  fifty  millions  of  pounds  of 
wocl,  besides  which  about  fifteen  or  twenty  millions  of  pounds 
are   imported   from  Germany,   to  supply  the  manufactories  of 
woollen   goods.     England   also  imports   from  Germany   about 
twenty^  five  millions  of  pounds  annually,  the  produce  of  that 
country  not  being  sufficient,  though  very  large,  to  meet  the  de- 
mand of  the  manufacturers. 

4.  What  is  the  Mouflon  ? 

5.  To   what   uses  is  the   domestic  Sheep  applied  ?     What  are  Merino 
Sheep  ? 

6.  How  is  wool  obtained  ? 

7.  In  what  countries  do  Sheep  most  abound  ? 


OX.— AUROCH.  119 

8.  The  genus  of  the  Ox, —  Bos, — comprises  those  animals,  the 
horns  of  which  are  directed  from  the  side,  and  turn  upwards  or 
forwards  in  the  form  of  a  crescent;  they  are  large  animals  with 
a  broad  muzzle,  short  stature,  and  stout  limbs,  and  are  found  on 
both  continents.  They  are  also  distinguished  by  a  fold  of  skin  that 
hangs  beneath  the  neck,  which  is  called  Dewlap.     They  delight 
in  humid  and  marshy  situations.     They  are  slower  and  heavier 
than  other  Ruminants.     The  principal  species  are :    the  common 
Ox,  the  Auroch,  both  originally  of  Europe,  the  Buffalo,  the  Yack, 
which  belong  to  Asia,  the  Bison  and  Musk  Ox,  which  are  indige- 
nous to  North  America. 

9.  The  Common  Ox, —  Ens   7'ot/n/s — which   when   young,  is 
called  a  6V///,  is  characterised  by  a  flat  forehead  which  is  longer 
than  it  is  broad  ;  round  horns  placed  at  the  two  extremities  of  a 
ridge  which  separates  the  forehead  from   the  occiput,   and  four 
mammae  which  are  arranged  in  pairs      The  male  is  called  a  Ball 
and  the  female  a  Cow.     As  powerful  as  he  is  docile,  the  Ox  is  of 
great  use  in  domestic  economy    He  draws  waggons,  ploughs,  &c. 

10.  His  flesh,  which  is  very  succulent,  is  eaten  both  fresh 
and  salted.     By  boiling,  his  skin  forms  glue ;  by  tanning,  it  is  con- 
verted into  Li  akn;  which  is  chiefly  manufactured  into  shoes ; 
the  hair  enters  into  the  composition  of  certain  mortars  ;  the  horns 
are  manufactured  into  toys,  combs,  and  other  utensils.     His  fat 
is  burned  ;  his  blood  makes  good  manure,  and  is  used  to  manu- 
facture a  precious  blue  colour,  known  under  the  name  of  Prussian. 
Jtiltie;  it  is  also  employed  in  refining  sugars,  and  fish  oils.     The 
membrane  that  covers  the  intestines,  when  dried,  forms  what  is 
called  Gold-tH'atc.ii?  s/tin^  and  is  used  for  covering  balloons,  for 
beating  gold  into  extremely  thin  leaves;  and  the  milk  of  the  cow 
yields  cream,  cheese  and  butter.     There  are  oxen  in  all  parts  of 
the  world,  but  they  are  originally  from  Europe  and  Asia 

1 1  The  Jlni-octi, —  Bos  Urns, — is  the  largest  quadruped  proper 
to  Europe.  It  is  distinguished  from  the  domestic  Ox,  by  its 
arched"  forehead,  which  is  broader  than  it  is  high,  by  the  horns 
being  attached  below  the  occipital  crest,  by  a  sort  of  curly  wool 
that  covers  the  head  and  neck  of  the  male,  forming  a  short  beard 
under  the  throat,  and  by  an  additional  pair  of  ribs  It  is  there- 
fore plain,  that  it  is  wrong  to  suppose  that  the  Aurochs  form  the 
original  stock  of  our  horned  cattle. 

8.  What  iirTmals  belong  to  thi,-  genus  of  the  Ox  ?     What  is  the  Dewlap  ? 
What  are  the  principal  t-pe<  ies  of  this  genus  '? 

9.  How  is  the  common  Ox  charac  erised  ? 

10.  To  whiit  purposes  is  the  bo.Jy  of  the  Ox  applied?     What  is  Prussian 
blue  made  of  ?     What  is  Gold-beaters'  skin  ?     What  use  is  made  of  it  ? 

11.  What  is  the  Auroch? 

11 


120 BUFFALO.— YACK.— MUSK  OX.— BI SO N. 

12.  The  Auroch  formerly  inhabited  all  temperate  Europe ;  now 
the  race  is  almost  extinct,  and  only  a  few  individuals  are  found, 
that  have  taken  refuge  in  the  great  marshy  forests  of  Lithuania, 
of  the  Krapacs,  and  of  Caucasus. 

13.  The  Buffalo,— Bos  Bnbalits  —  (Plate  6,  fig.  1.)  — originally 
from  India  and  naturalised  in  Italy  and  Greece,  has  a  convex  fore- 
head, higher  than  wide,  and  the  horns  marked  in  front  by  a  longi- 
tudinal ridge.     It  is  less  docile  than  the  Ox,  but  is  more  robust, 
and  more  easily  fed.     Its  skin  is  converted  into  a   strong,  dura- 
ble kind  of  leather ;  the  horns  are  of  a  very  fine  grain,  and  are 
susceptible  of  a  high  polish.     The  Buffalo  loves  to  wallow  in  the 
mud  ;  he  is  an  excellent  swimmer,  and  sometimes  dives  to  a  depth 
of  ten  or  twelve  feet,  to  tear  up  with  his  horns  certain  aquatic 
plants  that  he  eats  while  swimming. 

14.  The    Yack,    also  called    the   Horse-tailed    Buffalo,    and 
Grunting  Cow  of  tartary, —  Bos  Grunuiens, —  (Plate  5,  fiy.  13.) 
— is  a  species  originally  from  Thibet,  and  is  of  small  size.     The 
Yack  has  a  long  mane  on  his  back  and  his  tail  is  covered  with 
long  hairs  like  that  of  a  horse     This  tail  constitutes  the  standards 
still  used  among  the  Turks  to  distinguish  the  superior  officers. 

15.  The  ;)/?/.*/<  Ox  of  America, —  IJ«s   Moschatvat~(Plate6. 
fig.  2.) — inhabits  the  most  northern  parts  of  America,  under  the 
polar  circle,  and  climbs  rocks  almost  as  well  as  a  goat.     The 
horns  meet   at  their  base  in  front  of  the  forehead  almost  on  a 
straight  line,  and  are   directed    outwards  and  downwards.     It 
stands  low,  and  is  covered  with  tufted  hair  that  reaches  to   the 
ground.     The  tail  is  very  short.     It  diffuses  a  strong   smell  of 
musk  with  which  its  flesh  is  also  impregnated.     The  Esquimaux 
make  caps  of  the  tail,  the  hairs  of  which  falling  over  their  face, 
defend  them  from  mosquitoes. 

16.  The  Bison,  or  American  Buffalo, —  Bos  Rison  ;   Kos  Ameri- 
canus, — also  inhabits  North  America,  but  not  to  so  high  a  latitude 
as  the  preceding.     He  is  met  with  from  Louisiana  to  within  a 
few  degrees  of  the  polar  circle.     He  lives  in  great  herds,  pell-mell 
with  deer  and  stags  on  the  vast  open  savannas  or  prairies,  and 
abounds  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sources  of  the  Missouri  and  Missis- 
sippi rivers,  and  is  always  found  near  salt-licks.     He  is  smaller 
than  the  Auroch,  but  larger  than  the  domestic  Bull.     His  limbs 
andtailare  short.     The  anterior  part  of  his  body  is  very  thick 

12.  Where  is  the  Auroch  found  ? 

13.  What   is   the    Buffalo?     Whore  is  it  found  ?     To  what  uses  is  it  ap. 
phed  ?     What  are  it*  habits  ? 

14.  What  is  the  Yni-k  ?     What  use  is  made  of  its  tail? 

15.  Where  is  the  Musk  Ox  found  ?     What  kind  of  an  animal  is  it  ? 

16.  Where  is  the  Bison  found?     What  are  its  characters  ? 


BISON,  OR,  AMERICAj^BUFFALa 121 

and  strong,  but  the  croup  is  comparatively  more  feeble.  A  fleshy 
hump  rises  on  the  withers  between  the  two  shoulders;  this  wen, 
the  distinctive  characteristic  of  the  Bison,  is  regarded  by  the 
Indians  as  a  luscious  morsel.  His  head  is  large ;  his  horns  round, 
short,  almost  straight,  and  set  wide  apart  at  the  base.  A  thick, 
curly  wool  of  a  brownish  black  colour,  which  in  winter,  grows 
very  long,  covers  his  head,  neck,  and  shoulders,  while  the  rest  of 
his  body  is  furnished  with  smooth  black  hair.  His  skin  is  very 
thick  and  spongy,  like  that  of  the  Buffalo.  Although  heavy  in 
appearance,  he  is  swift  of  foot ;  he  is  savage,  but  may  be  tamed 
if  taken  young. 

17.  The  flesh  is  juicy,  and  well  flavoured.     The  skin  makes  an 
excellent  blanket  when  dressed ;  and  the  wool  has  in  England 
been  manufactured  into  a  fine  cloth.     Pemmican  is  made  of  the 
flesh  and  fat  of  the  American  Buffalo. 

18.  "The  Bison  wanders  constantly  from  place  to  place,  either 
from  being  disturbed  by  hunters,  or  in  quest  of  food.     They  are 
much  attracted  by  the  soft  tender  grass,  which  springs  up  after  a 
fire  has  spread  over  the  prairie.    In  winter,  they  scrape  away 
the  snow  with  their  feet,  to  reach  the  grass.     The  Bison  is,  in 
general,  a  shy  animal,  and  takes  to  flight  immediately  on  wind- 
ing an  enemy,  which  the  acuteness  of  its  sense  of  smell  enables 
it  to  do  from  a  great  distance.     They  are  less  wary  when  they 
are  assembled  together  in  numbers,  and  will  often  blindly  follow 
their  leaders,  regardless  of,  or  trampling  down  the  hunters  posted 
in  their   way.     It  is  dangerous  for  the  hunter  to  shew  himself 
after  having  wounded  one,  for  it  will  pursue  him,  and,  although 
its  gait  may  appear  heavy  and  awkward,  it  will  have  no  great 
difficulty  in  overtaking  the  fleetest  runner.     One  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company's  clerks  was  descending  the  Saskatchewan  in   a 
boat,  and  having  one  evening  pitched  his  tent  for  the  night,  he 
went  out  in  the  dusk  to  look  for  game.     It  had  become  nearly 
dark  when  he  fired  at  a  Bison  bull  which  was  galloping   over  a 
small  eminence,  and  as  he  was  hastening  forward  to  see   if  his 
shot  had  taken  effect,  the  wounded  beast  made  a  rush  at  him. 
He  had  the  presence  of  mind  to  seize  the  animal  by  the  long  hair 
on  its  forehead,  as  it  struck  him  on  the  side  with  its  horns,  and 
being  a  remarkably  tall  and  powerful  man,  a  struggle  ensued, 
which   continued  till  his  wrist  was  severely  sprained,  and  his 
arm  rendered  powerless.     He  then  fell,  and,  after  receiving  two 
or  three  blows,  became  senseless.     Shortly  after,   he  was  found 
by  his  companions,  lying  bathed  in  blood,  being  gored  in  several 

17.  To  what  purpose  is  the  Bison  applied  ? 

18.  Is  the  Bison  at  all  times  a  savage  animal? 


122 ORDER  OF  CETACEA. 

places,  and  the  Bison  was  couched  beside  him,  apparently    wait- 
ing to  renew  the  attack,  had  he  shown  any  signs  of  life. 

19.  "  The  favourite  Indian  method  of  killing  the  Bison,  is 
by  riding  to  the  fattest  of  the  herd  on  horseback,  and  shooting 
it  with  an  arrow.  When  a  large  party  of  hunters  are  engaged 
in  this  way  on  an  extensive  plain,  the  spectacle  is  very  imposing, 
and  the  young  men  have  many  opportunities  of  displaying  their 
skill  and  agility." — Richardson's  Travels. 


O  R  D  S  R     OF     CETACEA. 


20.  Whales,  Dolphins,  Porpoises,  and  other  animals  of  analo- 
gous structure,  designated   by  naturalists  under  the  name    ol 
Ci-tacea,  so  closely  resemble  fishes  in  their  external  form,  as  well 
as  in  their  mode  of  living,  that  the  ignorant  always  regard  them 
as  belonging  to  this  class ;  but,  if  we  do  not  confine  ourselves  to  a 
superficial  examination  of  these  singular  beings,  and  study  their 
organization  and  the  mechanism  of  their  functions,   we  shall  at 
once  be  convinced  that,  in  every  important  particular,  they  depart 
from  the  fishes,  to  approach  the  ordinary   mammalia.     Like  the 
first,  they  have  the  trunk  seemingly  confounded  with  the  head, 
and  continued  without  interruption  into  a  thick  tail,   terminated 
by  a  broad  fin,  and   the  anterior  extremities  transformed  into 
fins ;  they  want  the  posterior  extremities,  and  their  skin  is  not 
furnished  with  hair  like  that  of  ordinary  mammals;  but,  although 
they  keep  constantly  in  the  water,  they  have  no  branchiae,  and 
respire  through  the  medium  of  lungs ;  which  obliges  them  to  rise 
frequently  to  the  surface,  to  breathe  the  air  which  is  necessary  to 
the  maintenance  of  their  life.     Their  blood  is  warm ;  the  heart 
has  two  ventricles  and  two  auricles;  their  young  are  born  alive, 
and  they  are  provided  with  a  mammary  apparatus  for   suckling 
them. 

21,  Consequently  Cetacea  are  true  mammals;  but,  in  place  of 
being  organized  for  living  on  land,  like  quadrupeds  of  this  class, 
they  possess  important  modifications  in  their  structure   which 
renders  these  anirrals  essentially  aquatic,  and  the  density  of  the 
element  which  they  inhabit,  permits  them  to  acquire  dimensions 
which  would  have  been  incompatible  with  the  manner  of  living  and 
moving  proper  to  other  mammalia ;  it   is  in  this  group  that  the 
giants  of  the  creation  a"re  found.     The  very  largest  quadrupeds 

19.  What  is  the  favourite  Indian  method  of  killing  the  Bison  ? 

20.  Why  is  a  Whale  not  a  fish  ? 

21.  What  are  Cetacea  ? 


CETACEA.  123 


are  small  in  comparison  to  many  of  the  Cetacea,  and  notwith- 
standing these  latter  are  so  immeasurably  large,  they  swim  with 
great  rapidity.  The  air  enclosed  in  their  chest,  and  the  enor- 
mous quantity  of  fat  on  their  body  helps  to  sustain  them  in  the 
water  surrounding  them,  and  their  general  form  is  perfectly  fitted 
for  the  kind  of  movements  they  are  called  upon  to  perform.  Their 
long,  thick  tail  is  an  oar  as  powerful  as  that  with  which  nature  has 
endowed  the  most  vigorous  and  most  active  fishes,  and  the  fin 
which  terminates  it,  in  place  of  being  vertical,  as  in  the  latter,  is 
placed  horizontally,  a  position  which  is  singularly  favourable  for 
raising  them  to  the  surface  when  they  require  to  breathe  the  air. 
'22.  Their  anterior  extremities,  as  we  have  said,  are  trans- 
formed into  fins  :  nevertheless,  these  organs  possess  the  basis  of 
the  same  structure  as  the  arm  of  man,  the  paw  of  a  dog,  or  the 
wing  of  a  bat.  We  find  in  them  the  same  bones,  except  that  the 
humerus  and  bones  of  the  fore  arm  are  shortened,  and  those  of 
the  hand  flattened  and  enveloped  in  a  tendinous  membrane,  which 
confines  motion  almost  exclusively  to  the  articulation  of  the 
shoulder.  Sometimes,  the  phalanges  are  more  numerous  than  in 
other  mammals ;  in  other  respects  these  oars  only  serve  the  ani- 
mal in  preserving  his  equilibrium  and  changing  his  course ;  the 
tail  being  his  true  organ  of  motion.  The  posterior  extremities 
are  entirely  wanting :  but  we  find  at  the  posterior  part  of  the 
abdomen,  two  or  three  rudimentary  bones,  suspended  in  the  flesh, 
which  are  the  vestiges  of  the  pelvis.  (See  First  Book  of  Natural 
History.)  Beneath  the  caudal  vertebrae,  there  are  bones  in  the 
form  of  the  letter  V,  which  afford  points  of  attachment  to  the 
flexor  muscles  of  the  tail,  and  increase  their  strength  :  it  is  to 
remarked  also,  that  the  cervical  vertebra,  although  seven  in  num 
ber,  are  very  short,  and  generally,  almost  entirely  soldered 
together.  Finally,  the  petrous  bone,  that  part  of  the  cranium 
which  encloses  the  internal  ear,  in  place  of  being  confounded  with 
other  parts  of  the  temporal  bone,  is  separate  from  the  rest  of  the 
head,  and  adheres  to  it  by  ligaments 

23.  The  senses  generally  seem  to  be  obtuse  in  these  animals. 
They  never  have  an  external  ear ;  they  often  want  the  olfactory 
nerves;    the  tongue   is   almost   irnmoveable,  and   their  skin  is 
generally  covered  with  the  thickest  kind  of  epidermic  layer.  They 
display  but  little  intelligence.     Their  brain  is  nevertheless  large, 
and  its  hemispheres  are  well  developed. 

24.  In  the  Cetacea,  the  apparatus  of  respiration  possesses  pecu- 
liarities of  structure,  the  utility  of  which  is  evident      The  nares 

22.  What  is  the  general  conformation  of  Cetacea  ? 

23.  Do  the  Cetacea  possess  all  the  senses  in  perfection  ? 

24.  What  are  the  peculiarities  of  the  apparatus  of  respiration  ? 


124 HERBIVOROUS  CETACEA. 

in  general  open  externally  on  the  top  of  the  head,  which  enables 
the  animal  to  breathe  the  air  without  raising  his  muzzle  out  of  the 
water,  and  the  larynx  is  advanced  to  the  posterior  nares,  so  as  to 
establish,  independently  of  the  pharynx,  a  communication  be- 
tween the  nasal  fossae  and  the  lungs,  and  permit  him  to  fill  his 
mouth  with  water,  and  swallow  his  food  without  interrupting 
respiration.  The  stomach  of  the  Cetacea  generally  presents  as 
great,  if  not  greater,  complication  in  its  structure,  than  that  of  the 
Ruminants.  There  is  no  large  intestine  recognised,  and  their 
teeth,  when  they  exist,  are  all  alike. 

25.  This  order  is  composed  of  two  families  which  are  distin- 
guished by  their  regimen,  their  teeth  and  several  other  peculiari- 
ties of  organization,  and  may  be  recognised  by  the  position  of 
their  nares  ;  they  are : 

1st.  The  HERBIVOROUS  CETACEA, —  Cetacea  Herbiuora, —  the 
nares  of  which  open  externally  at  the  extremity  of  the  muzzle ; 

2d.  The  ORDINARY  CETACEA,  or  BLOWERS, — Cetacea  Ordinaria, 
— the  nares  of  which  open  on  the  posterior  face  of  the  head. 

FAMILY  OF  HERBIVOROUS  CETACEA. 

26.  The  food  of  these  animals  being  herbaceous,  they  possess 
molar  teeth  with  flat  crowns,  and  the  faculty  of  crawling  on  land, 
to  graze  along  the  sea  shore :  their  anterior  extremities  are  more 
flexible  than  those  of  other  Cetacea,  and  they  do  not  frequent 
the  high  sea.     From  the  circumstance  of  grazing  like  Ruminants, 
and   being  large  and  massive,  travellers  often  designate  them 
under  the  names  of  Sea-£utl,  Sea-cow,  and  Sea-calf.     Sometimes 
they  are  termed    Mermaids, — Sea-women, — and  it  is  probable 
these  have  been  in  question,  when  some  modern  navigators  said, 
they  had  met  with  Sirens  and  Tritons  :  for  they  have  a  habit  of 
often  raising  the  anterior  part  of  the  body  out  of  the  water,  and 
their  mamma?  being  on  the  chest,  tfie  hair   which   surrounds  the 
snout,  might  at  a  distance  appear  like  female  tresses ;  and  then 
the  adroitness  with  which  they  sometimes  use  their  fins  to  carry 
their  young,  gives  them  in  certain  points,  some  remote  resem- 
blance to  the  human  species.     Their  stomach  is  divided  into  four 
pouches,  two  of  which  are  lateral. 

27.  The  principal  genera  of  this  family  are  the  Lamantins  and 
Dvyonns; 

28.  The  Lamantins,  —  Man atm, — have  an  oblong  body  termi- 
nated by  an  elongated  oval  fin.     Vestiges  of  nails  are  found  on 

25    How  is  the  Order  of  Cetacea  divided  ? 

26.  What  kind  of  teeth  have  the  herbivorous  Cetacea  ?     What  are  Mer- 
mai  Is?     What  is  the  character  of  the  s'omach  of  Herbivorous  Cetacea? 

27.  What  are  the  principal  genera  of  the  family  of  Herbivorous  Cetacea  7 

28.  What  are  Lamantins?    Why  have  they  been  called  Manati? 


DUGONG.— ORDINARY  CETACEA. 125 

their  paws,  which,  having  a  coarse  resemblance  to  hands,  have 
obtained  for  these  animals  the  name  of  Manatust  which  has 
been  corrupted  into  Lamantin.  Their  head  is  terminated  by  a 
fleshy  muzzle,  furnished  with  hair^nd  they  have  eight  molars 
with  square  crowns,  throughout.  They  inhabit  the  warm 
regions  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  near  the  mouths  of  rivers,  wjiich 
they  sometimes  ascend  to  a  considerable  distance :  they  live  in 
troops,  often  land  and  are  readily  approached.  They  display  the 
greatest  attachment  for  their  companions.  The  Lamantin  is  some- 
times fifteen  feet  in  length.  The  flesh  is  eaten. 

29.  Dugouts, — Hulicore  Dugoiig,  —  inhabit  the  Indian  Seas, 
and  are  distinguished  from  the  Lamantins  by   their  elongated 
body,  the  crescent-form  of  their  caudal  fins,  and  the  pointed  tusks 
that  protrude  from  the  upper  jaw. 

FAMILY  OF  CETACEA  ORDINARIA,  OR  BLOWERS. 

30.  The  Cetacea  of  this   group  differ  from  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding by  having  their  mammae  near  the  anus,  instead  of  being 
on  the  chest,  by  the  garniture  of  the  mouth,  the  teeth,   when 
they  exist,  being  pointed ;  by  their  carneous  regimen ;  by  the 
position  of  the  nares,  &c.;  but  what  especially  distinguishes  them, 
is  the  singular  apparatus  which  has  obtained  for  them  the  name 
of  Blowers. 

31.  The  great  masses  of  water  that  these  animals  take  into 
their  vast  mouth  with  their  prey,  are  thrown  out  through  the 
nasal  fossa?,  in  the  form  of  jets  which  may  be  perceived  at  a  long 
distance.     For  this  purpose  the  blowers  move  their   tongue  and 
jaws  as  if  they  would  swallow  the  liquid ;  while  at  the  same  time 
the  commencement  of  the  oesophagus  closes  with  so  much  force 
as  to  prevent  its  descent  to  the  stomach,  and  retains  it  in  the 
pharynx.     The  veil  of  the  palate  at  once  intercepts  the  commu- 
nication between  the  mouth  and  the  swallow,  and  the  powerful 
muscles  which  surround  this  latter  cavity,  by  contracting,  expel 
the  water,  which  finding  no  outlet  except  through  the  posterior 
nares,  passes  through  them  and  accumulates  in  two  great  mem- 
branous pouches,  situate  between  the  extremity  of  the  bony  por- 
tion of  the  nasal  canal  and  the  skin.     A  fleshy  valve,  arranged 
so  as  to  rise  up  when  the  water  presses  from  below  upwards, 

29.  How  are  Dugongs  distinguished  from  Lamantins  ? 

30.  In    what  particulars  do  animals  of  the  family  of  Ordinary  Cetacea 
differ  from  the  Herbivorous  Cetacea '/ 

31.  What  is  the  anatomical  arrangement  which    enables  the  Blowers  to 
avoid  swallowing  the  water  they  take  into  the  mouth?     What  becomes  of 
the  water  after  it  passes  through  the  posterior  nares  ?     What    prevents    the 
water  in  the  reservoirs  from  returning  to  the  pharynx,  when  they  contract  ? 


126 


DOLPHINS. 


and  to  intercept  all  communication  between  these  cavities  and  the 
nasal  fossae,  when  pressed  in  a  contrary  direction,  prevents  the 
water  forced  into  the  reservoirs  just  described,  from  descending 
into  the  nasal  fossae ;  then  the  fleshy  fibres,  which  come  in  the 
form  of  rays  from  all  the  neighbouring  parts  of  the  cranium  to  be 
attached  to  the  two  bags,  by  contracting,  compress  them  violently, 
and  expel  the  water,  which  escapes  externally  through  the  narrow 
opening  of  the  nares,  (called  spiracle,  vent,  or  blow-hole,)  and 
forms  a  jet  which  sometimes  ascends  as  high  as  nearly  forty  feet. 

32,  These   animals  do  not  chew  their  food,  but  swallow  it 
rapidly.     Their  stomach  consists  of  from  five  to   seven  distinct 
pouches.     Many  of  them  have  on  the  back  a  vertical  fin,  formed 
of  tendinous  matter  but  which  is  not  sustained   by  bones.     The 
skin  is  smooth,  and  generally  without  a  vestige  of  hair. 

33.  This  family  is  divided  into  four  principal  genera,  which 
may  be  recognised  by  the  following  characters : 

(Genera.) 

(Furnished    with    small  )  n 
conical  teeth  in  both  jaws.  \  " 
Without  ordinary  teeth, ") 
but  armed  with   a    great  ^NARWHALS. 
horizontal  tusk. 


CETACEOUS 
BLOWERS. 


f     Teeth  in  the  lower  jaw  : 
The  head   equal  j  no  whalebone, 
to   a  third,  or  one-^ 
half  of  the   whole  |      Without  teeth  :    whale- 


length. 


l^bone  in  the  upper  jaw. 


~ 
^ 


WHALW 


34.  Dolphins  are  divided,  according  to  the  form  of  the  head 
and  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  dorsal  fin,  into  Dolphins  properly 
so  called,  Porpoises,  &c. 

35.  DOLPHINS    PROPERLY   so  CALLED, — Delphinus, — are  recog- 
nised by  a  sort  of  beak  formed  by  the  muzzle,  which  is  more 
slender  than  the  rest  of  the  head,  abruptly  separating  from  the 
convex  forehead:  they  have  a   dorsal  fin,  and  a  considerable 
number  of  conical  teeth  placed  along  both  jaws ;  they  count  in 
all  from  one  hundred  and  sixty  eight,  to  one  hundred  and  ninety, 
according  to  the  species. 

32.  Do  these  animals  chew  their  food  ?     What  kind  of  a  stomach  have 
they  ?     Is  their  skin  rough  or  smooth  ? 

33.  How  is  this  family  divided  ?     What  kind  of  teeth  have  Dolphins  ? 
What  kind  of  teeth   have  Narwhals?     Are  the  heads  of  these  animals  ex- 
ceedingly large  ?    What  kind  of  teeth  have  Cachalots  ?    What  kind  of  teeth 
have  Whales?  What  is  the  character  of  the  head  of  Cachalots  and  Whales? 

34.  How  are  the  Dolphins  divided? 

35.  How  are  Dolphins  properly  so  called  distinguished  ? 


PORPOISES.  127 


36.  These  animals  are  the  mo?t  carnivorous,  and  in  proportion 
to  their  size,  the  most  cruel  of  all  the  Cetacea.  Their  skin,  which 
is  smooth,  is  ordinarily  bluish  black  above,  and  white  or  whitish 
below.  The  vent,  directed  vertically,  is  sometimes  in  the  form  of 
a  crescent,  sometimes  of  a  straight  line,  and  is  often  found  on 
a  line  with  the  eyes.  Most  of  them  have  a  triangular  fin  on  the 
back.  Their  brain  is  generally  remarkable  for  its  developement 
and  the  depth  of  its  convolutions.  These  animals  are  celebrated 
for  their  swiftness,  as  well  as  on  account  of  the  fables  the  ancients 
have  mingled  with  their  history,  and  on  account  of  a  species  of 
religious  worship  they  received  amongst  the  Greeks.  They  live 
in  numerous  troops,  of  which  the  strongest  seem  to  be  the  leaders, 
and  display  strong  attachment  for  their  young;  they  often  ac- 
company ships  to  seize  upon  fishes  attracted  by  the  refuse  thrown 
overboard,  and  sometimes  they  have  been  known  to  follow  a  ves- 
sel throughout  a  long  voyage,  playing  under  the  bows,  while  she 
cleaves  the  waves  with  all  the  rapidity  that  wind  and  sails  can 
communicate.  It  is  these  peculiar  habits,  joined  to  a  degree  of 
intelligence  far  superior  to  that  of  fishes,  with  which  the  ignorant 
are  always  disposed  to  compare  these  animals,  that  have  obtained 
for  them  their  ancient  reputation  for  sociability ;  the  poetic  im- 
agination of  the  Greeks  created  for  the  Dolphin  an  assemblage 
of  perfections,  moral  and  physical,  which  the  human  species  is 
far  from  possessing.  They  placed  its  image  in  their  temples,  im- 
pressed it  on  their  coins,  on  their  medals  and  made  it  the  attribute 
or  symbol  of  the  god  of  the  sea;  they  employed  its  image  to 
recal  the  memory  of  a  host  of  events  real  or  fabulous,  and  to  ex- 
press moral  precepts;  finally,  they  associated  it  with  a  great 
number  of  their  divinities,  and  what  is  singular,  the  ancients 
never  represented  it  with  that  exactness  which  they  habitually 
observed  in  imitating  nature,  but  as  if  they  designed  to  idealize  it. 

37.  The  species  of  cetacea  which  has  received  so  many  honours 
seems  to  be  the  Common  Dolphin, — Delpldnus  Delpliis, — It  is 
from  eight  to  ten  feet  long  and  is  found  in  every  sea.  It  is  black 
above  and  white  below ;  it  has  a  depressed  beak,  which  is  armed 
on  each  side  with  from  forty  two  to  forty  seven  small,  pointed  teeth. 

38  PORPOISES,— Phoccena, — differ  from  the  preceding  in  their 
short  muzzle,  uniformly  convex,  which  does  not  resemble  a  beak. 
Their  name,  which  signifies  hog-fish,  has  been  given  to  them  on 
account  of  the  quantity  of  fat  found  beneath  the  skin. 

36.  What  are  the  habits  of  Dolphins  1 

37.  What  is  the  common  Dolphin?     What  is  the  number  of  its  teeth? 

38.  How  do  Porpoises  differ  from  Dolphins  1 


128 GRAMPUS.— NARWHAL.— CAC  H  A  LOT. 

39.  The  Common  Porpoise, — Delphian*  Phoccena, — (Plate  6. 
Jig,  6.) — which  is  the  smallest  of  all  the  Cetac?a,  never  exceeds 

four  or  five  feet  in  length.     It  lives  in  numerous  troops. 

40.  Another  species  of  Porpoise  known  under  the  name  of 
Grampus, —  Defpkimu  Gladiator, — is  the  largest   animal  of  this 
tribe  of  Cetacea,  often  attaining  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  feet 
in  length.     It  is  the  most  relentless  enemy  of  the  whale.     They 
attack  it  in  troops,  and  torment  it  until  it  opens  its  mouth,  when 
they  devour  the  tongue. 

41.  The  NARWHALS, — Monodon,— closely  resemble  porpoises, 
but  they  have  no  teeth  properly  so  called.     The  mouth   is  armed 
with  two  straight,  horizontal  tusks,  one  of  which  generally  re- 
mains concealed  in  the  alveolus  while  the  other  acquires  a  very 
considerable  length,  sometimes  ten  feet,  and  is  generally  furrowed 
spirally.     These  tusks  were  for  a  long  time  mistaken  for  the 
horns  of  a  fabulous  quadruped,  the  Unicorn      Only  one  species 
of  Narwhal  is  known  :  it  inhabits  the  North  Sea,  principally  be- 
tween Greenland  and   Iceland.     Its  skin  is  marbled  brown  and 
whitish,  and  its  length  is  from  fifteen  to  sixteen  feet.     Its  vent  is 
on  the  top  of  the  head,  and  it  has  no  dorsal  fin.     It   swims  with 
great  rapidity,  and  is  a  formidable  enemy  of  the  whale,  which  it 
attacks  in  troops,  inflicting  deep  wounds  with  its  tusks      Fisher- 
men seek  it  for  the  excellent  oil  obtained  from  its  fat,  a  single 
Narwhal  yielding  from  two  to  three  tons.     The  tusks  are  also 
employed  for  the  same  purposes  as  ivory. 

42.  The   CACHALOTS, —  Physeter,  —  (Plate   6,^/7.  9.) -are 
Cetacea   with  a  very  voluminous,  inflated  head,  particularly  in 
front,  whose  lower  jaw    is  armed  with   a  row  of  cylindrical 
teeth,  which,  when  the  mouth  is  closed,  enter  into  corresponding 
cavities  in  the  upper  jaw  which  has  neither  teeth  nor   whale- 
bone, (balen.)    The  head  of  these  animals  is  enormous,  and  very 
much  swelled-out  anteriorly.     Its  structure  is  very  singular;  all 
above  the  face  and  cranium  is  formed  into  a  large  oval  basin,  the 
edges  of  which  rise  behind  six  feet  above  the  cranium  and  gradu- 
ally diminish  in  front ;  the  parietes  of  this  great  cavity  are  chiefly 
formed  by  a  prolongation  of  the  superior  maxillary  bones,  which 
joins  a  vertical  crest  of  the  occipital  bone,  and  these  latter  give  in- 


39.  What  is  the  common  Porpoise? 

40.  What  is  the  Grampus  ? 

41.  What  are  Narwhals?     What  is  the  Unicorn  ?    To  what  purposes  are 
Narwhals  applied? 

42.  What  are  Cachalots  ?     What  kind  of  teeth  have  they  ?     What  is  the 
eize  of  their  head  ?     What  are  the  anatomical  peculiarities  of  the   head  of 
the  Sperm  Wnale  ?     In  what  part  of  the  animal  is  spermaceti  found  ? 


SPERMACETI.— AMBERGRIS.— SPERM  WHALE.          129 

sertion,  by  their  edges,  to  a  sort  of  fibro-cartilaginous  cover, 
which  transforms  the  basin,  we  have  just  described,  into  a  long, 
cylindrical  cavity,  divided  into  two  stories  by  a  membranous 
partition,  also  extended  from  the  margin  of  one  maxillary  bone  to 
that  of  the  other.  These  two  chambers  are  filled  with  adipocire, 
a  sort  of  oil  which  becomes  fixed  on  cooling,  well  known  in  com- 
merce under  the  name  of  Spermaceti:  they  communicate  with 
canals  which  go  to  different  parts  of  the  body  and  are  connected 
with  the  sub-cutaneous  fatty  tissue  or  blubber,  and  also  contain 
arlipocire:  in  proportion  as  the  great  upper  reservoir  is  emptied, 
it  refills  with  this  fatty  matter. 

43.  The  channel  of  the  vent,  (spiracle)  passes  obliquely  through 
this  mass  of  adipocire  and  opens  a  little  to  the  left,  near  the  supe- 
rior edge  of  the  snout  which  terminates  the  head  of  the  Cachalot 
in  front.    The  jets  of  water  spouted  from  it,  are  directed  obliquely 
forwards,  they  ascend  higher  and  occur  more  frequently  than  in 
the  whale,  and  are  attended  with  a  noise  which  may  be  heard  at 
a  long  distance.     The  layer  of  fat,  which  lies  beneath  the  skin, 
constituting  what  is   called  blubber  by  whalers,  is  not  so  thick 
and  does  not  furnish  so  much  oil,  as  in  the  whale.     The  odorous 
substance  known  under  the  name  of  Jlmberyris,  sometimes  met 
with  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  sea,  appears  to  be  a  morbid 
concretion  formed  in  the  intestines  of  these  animals. 

44.  The  Cachalot  inhabits,  from  choice,  the  equatorial  regions 
of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  oceans.     They  are  met  with  in  pretty 
numerous  bands  composed  of  females  led  by  two  or  three  males, 
which   are  much  larger  than  the  former.     They  seem  to  feed 
chiefly  on  the  large  mollusca  ;  but  we  are  assured  that  they  do  not 
spare  the  largest  fishes,  and  are  objects  of  terror  to  all  the  in- 
habitants of  the  sea. 

45.  The  different  species  are  not  well  ascertained.     The  best 
known  is  the  common  sperm  whale  —  Wyscter  Macrocephuliis, — 
which   has  a  callous  prominence  in  place  of  a  dorsal  fin.     The 
muzzle,  which  is  of  a  cubic  form,  is  truncated  in  front,  and  the 
vent  or  spiracle,  which  is  double  in  most  other  cetacea,  is  single. 
The  length  of  this  animal  is  about  seventy  feet,  and  the  bi-lobed 
fin  which  terminates  the  tail  is  about  eight  feet  wide. 

43.  What  is  the  direction  of  the  water  spouted  through  the  spiracle  of  the 
Cachalot?     What  is  blubber  ?     What  is  ambergris  ? 

44.  Where  does  the  Cachalot  resort  from  choice  ?     What  does  the  Sperm 
Whale  feed  upon  ? 

45.  What  are  the  characters  of  the  common  Sperm  Whale  ?  Is  the  spiracle 
double  or  single ?    What  is  the  size  of  this  animal? 


130 WHALES.— WHALEBONE. 

46.  WHALES, —  MalcEna, — have  a  head  as  large  as  that  of  the 
Cachalot,  though  not  so  much  swelled  out  in  front ;  but  their  jaws 
are  without  teeth,  and  the  upper  one  which  is  keel-shaped,  is  fur- 
nished with  whalebone.     This  name  is  given  to  great  horny  plates 
of  fibrous  texture,  which   are  very  elastic  and  fringed  at  their 
edges,   that  are  placed  transversely  like  the  teeth  of  a  comb, 
strongly  locked  one  into  the  other  and  attached  to  the  jaw  at  their 
base,  so  as  to  extend  from  each  side  of  the  palate,  (Plate  6  fig.  8.) 
forming  a  sort  of  great  sieve  through  which,  the  water,  taken 
into  the  immense  mouth  of  the  animal,  partly  escapes,  without 
however  carrying  with  it  the  small  animals  it  contains, 

47.  From  the  size  of  Whales,  we  should  be  led  to  believe  that 
these  animals  would  devour  the  largest  fishes,  but  it  is  altogether 
otherwise ;  the  absence  of  teeth,  the  species  of  armature  of  their 
mouth  and  the  weakness  of  the  muscles  of  their  jaws  permit  them 
to  seize  only  small  marine  animals;  their  ordinary  food  consists 
of  small  moliusca,  of  Crustacea  a  few  lines  in  length,  and  of 
zoophytes  whose  bodies  are  soft  as  jelly,  and,  as  the  number  of 
these  beings  is  immense,  they  have  only  to  open  the  mouth  to 
swallow   them   by   millions.     They  are  very  voracious  and  eat 
almost  continually ;  the  water  which  enters  their  enormous  mouth 
every  time  it  is  opened,  is  ejected  through  the  nares,  forming  a  jet 
above  the  head  that  falls  in  a  sort  of  fine  shower.     Whales  swim 
with  great  rapidity ;  and  having  no  means  of  defence  and  being 
often  embarrassed  by  the  enormous  mass  of  their  body,  they  are 
incapable  of  defending  themselves  successfully  against  agile  and 
robust  enemies,  and  a  consciousness  of  their  weakness  renders 
them  fearful  and  timid  ;  but  they  nevertheless  become  occasion- 
ally furious,  and  display  all  their  strength  in  defending  themselves, 
or  in  escaping  from  their  pursuers ;  when  they  strike  the  water 
with  their  tail,  they  produce  a  commotion  equal  to  that  from  a 
cannon  ball 

48.  Several   species   of  Whales  are  known.     That  which  is 
most  sought  by  whalers  is  the  Common  Whale, —  Ral&na    i\hjste- 
cetiis, — ( t>!ate  6,  fig.  7,)— which  is  recognised  by  its  having   no 
dorsal  fin  ;  it  does  not  often  exceed  seventy  feet  in  length,  yet  it 
is  very  large,  and  the  mass  of  the  body  is  enormous.     It  has  been 
estimated  J;hat  a  whale  of  only  seventy  feet  in  length,  weighs 
about  seventy  tons,  equal  to  the  weight  of  three  hundred  fat  oxen. 

46.  How  do  Whales  differ  from  Cachalots  ?  What  is  Whale  bone?  Of 
what  use  is  it  to  the  Whnle  ? 

47  What  is  the  ordinary  food  of  Whales  ?  What  are  the  habits  of 
Whales"' 

48.  How  is  the  Common  While  recognised  ?  What  is  the  size  of  the 
head  ? 


WHALE  FISHING.  131 


The  head  is  about  one  third  of  its  whole  length.  His  jaws  are 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  long,  and  his  tail  very  nearly  twenty 
feet  in  breadth.  His  skin,  which  is  black  and  spongy,  is  often  in- 
vaded by  a  great  number  of  parasites.  Some  attach  themselves 
to  it  as  to  a  rock,  and  others  penetrate  into  its  substance  and  are 
nourished  at  its  expense.  The  layer  of  fat  (blubber)  which 
entirely  covers  the  body  of  this  animal  is  often  several  feet  in 
thickness,  and  yields  an  immense  quantity  of  oil ;  finally,  the 
whalebones  are  from  three  to  fifteen  feet  long,  according  to  the 
part  of  the  mouth  they  occupy. 

49.  The  catching  of  big-headed  cetacea,  which  naturalists 
separate  into  Cachalots  and  Whales,  but  which  mariners  often 
confound  under  the  latter  name,  is  among  the  most  important  of 
maritime  pursuits  from  the  products  it  affords,  and  from  the  in- 
fluence it  exercises  on  the  nautical  education  of  sailors.  Whale 
fishing  was  pursued  in  very  remote  times.  The  historians  of 
Norway,  and  the  account  of  his  voyages  related  by  Otho  to  Alfred 
the  Great,  King  of  England,  show  that,  from  the  ninth  century,  the 
Normans  devoted  themselves  actively  to  the  taking  of  whales  that 
approached  their  coasts,  and  it  seems  that  they  made  the  cordage 
used  in  the  rude  marine  of  that  people,  of  the  skins  of  these  cetacea. 
At  the  period  of  the  invasion  of  France  by  the  Normans,  whales 
were  seen  in  great  numbers  in  the  British  channel,  and  were  there 
attacked  by  the  fishermen.  From  time  immemorial  the  Basques  pur- 
sued these  animals  near  the  vicinity  of  the  shore  ;  and  gradually, 
as  whales  became  rare  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  they  pursued  them 
on  the  high  seas  :  to  these  hardy  mariners  belongs  the  honour  of 
being  the  first  to  carry  on  a  regular  fishery  for  whales  at  .  a  dis- 
tance. They  pursued  their  prey  along  the  coasts  of  Spain  to 
Cape  Finistere,  and  upon  those  shores  rnay  slill  be  seen  the 
watch-towers  established  by  the  Basque  fishermen  for  the  dis- 
covery of  whales,  and  the  ruins  of  'kilns  constructed  for  the 
rendering  or  "  trying-out  "  their  blubber.  It  appears  that  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  tenth  century,  they  occupied  Oporto,  by 
the  right  of  conquest,  and  founded  colonies  in  the  vicinity.  The 
fishery,  at  first  coast-wise,  was  aiterwards  conducted  on  the  open 
ocean.  The  mariner's  compass  being  discovered,  the  Basques 
ventured  to  the  north  east  in  pursuit  of  wrhales,  and  it  is  affirmed 
that,  as  early  as  1372,  they  arrived  on  the  grand  bank  of  New- 
foundland, whence  they  continued  their  voyages  to  the  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence,  and  the  coasts  of  Labrador.  In  the  fourteenth 
century  the  merchants  of  Bordeaux  fitted  out  two  whale  ships 

49.  Is  whale  fishing  a  modern  practice?     What  people  were  the  first 
pursue  Whales  upon  the  high  seas  ? 
12 


132  WHALE  FISHING. 


for  the  Frozen  Ocean,  which  went  as  far  as  Greenland,  and  even 
to  Spitzbergen.  At  this  period,  whale  fishing  was  in  a  most 
flourishing  condition  on  all  the  coast  of  Beam  and  of  Aunis,  and 
continued  on  the  same  footing  till  the  commencement  of  the 
seventeenth  century  ;  but  then  the  Basques,  finding  no  protection 
under  their  national  flag,  were  disturbed  by  jealous  rivals,  who 
excluded  them  from  the  places  most  favourable  for  the  fishery,  and 
exacted  from  them  onerous  contributions.  This  branch  of  in- 
dustry then  began  to  decline,  and  was  lost  to  France,  when  in 
1636,  the  Spaniards  having  taken  and  sacked  Soccoa,  Cibourn, 
and  Saint-Jean-de-Luz,  seized  fourteen  large  ships,  from  Green- 
land, richly  laden  with  oil  and  whalebone. 

The  poor  Basque  fishermen  were  then  forced  to  serve  as  guides 
to  their  more  powerful  rivals ;  they  taught  the  art  of  harpooning 
the  whale  to  the  Dutch  and  also  to  the  English,  who  at  that  time, 
were  ardently  devoted  to  maritime  speculations,  and  understood 
all  the  advantages  that  would  accrue  to  them  from  this  distant 
fishery. 

The  fishing  of  the  Dutch  began  in  16 12,  and,  although  thwarted 
at  first  by  the  rivalry  of  the  English,  rapidly  increased.  Rich 
companies  were  formed  for  pursuing  this  new  branch  of  industry, 
which  continued  to  be  a  source  of  prosperity  to  the  whole  country 
till  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century ;  but  maritime  wars 
opposed  an  insurmountable  obstacle  to  it,  and  since  the  peace,  Hol- 
land has  made  ineffectual  efforts  to  revive  the  prosperity  of  her 
whale  fishery,  which  is  doubtless  the  best  school  for  forming 
hardy  and  experienced  seamen. 

While  the  whale  fishery  was  so  productive  in  the  hands  of  the 
Dutch,  it  did  not  prosper  in  England :  but  the  enlightened  govern- 
ment of  that  country,  appreciating  its  utility,  made  efforts  to  in- 
sure its  success.  In  173'2,  it  granted  high  premiums  to  all  vessels 
fitted  out  for  this  fishery,  and  this  encouragement  not  producing 
the  desired  effect  in  1 749,  they  were  doubled  and  made  nearly 
equal  to  one  tenth  of  the  expense  of  the  outfits.  From  that  time 
this  branch  of  maritime  industry  rapidly  increased,  and  now  be- 
longs almost  exclusively  to  the  hlnglish,  and  their  ancient  colonies 
in  America,  the  United  States, which  have  become  their  rivals. 

We  have  already  seen  the  ground  of  this  fishery  moving  more 
and  more  towards  the  north,  in  proportion  as  the  whales  were 
destroyed  or  learned  to  fly  from  the  dangers  with  which  they 
were  threatened.  Until  the  fourteenth  or  fifteenth  century  it  was 
carried  on  in  the  waters  of  England,  France  and  Spain  ;  but  in 
the  sixteenth,  whales  were  no  longer  met  with  by  fishermen  except 
in  the  seas  of  Greenland  and  Spitzbergen.  These  animals  were 


WHALE  FISHING.  133 


then  so  numerous  near  the  shores  and  even  in  the  small  inlets  of 
the  last  named  island,  that  whaling  vessels  promptly  completed 
their  cargoes,  lying  near  the  shore,  and  with  the  object  of  facilita- 
ting their  operations,  the  Dutch  established  on  a  small  island 
in  the  neighbourhood,  a  village  called  Smerremberg,  where  they 
brought  the  captured  whales,  and  tried  out  the  oil  to  be  after- 
wards transported  to  Europe ;  but  these  animals  soon  deserted 
the  coasts  of  Spitzbergen  and  the  neighbouring  islands,  to  seek 
refuge  along  the  great  icy  bank  that  bounds  the  sea  of  Green- 
land on  the  north  west.  The  fishermen  followed  them  there  as 
soon  as  they  left  the  waters  of  Spitzbergen.  From  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  century  the  whale  fishery  has  been  most  active 
about  the  78th  or  81st  degree  of  north  latitude,  or  in  Davis' 
Straits,  about  the  isle  of  Disco ;  but  these  waters  in  turn  have 
been  depopulated,  and  for  three  or  four  years  past,  the  English 
whalers  have  almost  entirely  abandoned  those  places,  to  advance 
in  the  midst  of  the  ice,  in  Baffins  Bay,  to  Lancaster  Sound  and 
Melville  Bay. 

But  the  voyages  of  whalers  are  not  confined  to  the  northern 
seas.  At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  American 
whalers  of  Massachusetts  began  to  look  towards  the  south  and 
visited  the  waters  of  Cape  de  Verd,  the  south  western  coast  of 
Africa,  along  the  coasts  of  Brazil  and  Paraguay  to  the  Falkland 
islands.  From  that  time,  the  B^nglish  have  also  carried  on  a 
fishery  to  the  south,  and  now  the  whale  ships  of  both  nations 
plough  not  only  the  southern  parts  of  the  Atlantic,  but  the  whole 
expanse  of  the  Pacific  Ocean :  during  the  season,  they  cross 
to  the  waters  of  Japan,  then  descend  towards  the  Sandwich, 
Marquisas,  and  Galapagos  islands,  and  if  their  cargo  is  not  com- 
plete, they  touch  upon  the  coasts  of  Chile  and  Peru,  and  return 
by  Cape  Horn ;  but,  if  they  wish  to  continue  their  operations, 
they  cross  the  southern  hemisphere  in  the  summer  to  New  Zealand, 
to  return  towards  the  north  to  visit  the  seas  of  Japan,  or  the  coast 
of  California.  In  this  way,  they  sometimes  keep  at  sea  for  eight 
months  together,  exposed  to  the  greatest  fatigue  and  privations 
of  all  kinds ;  but  in  general,  the  dangers  are  less  in  this  vast  ocean 
than  in  the  polar  seas,  where  the  stoutest  vessels  are  sometimes 
crushed  by  the  ice,  and  where  shipwreck  is  unfortunately  very 
frequent. 

The  northern  fishery  is  for  the  common  whale,  while  that  ot 
the  south  is  chiefly  for  the  Cachalot,  (  P/iyseter  Macrocepkalus)  or 
Sperm  whale. 

The  mode  of  attacking  both  these  immense  cetacea,  is  the 
same.  As  soon  as  the  sailor,  placed  in  a  lookout  at  the  mast 


134  WHALE  FISHING. 


head,  discovers  a  whale,  the  fishermen  take  to  their  boats,  and 
with  muffled  oars  approach  him  in  silence.  One  of  them  stands 
erect  in  the  bows,  holding  a  harpoon,  a  species  of  javelin,  the 
deeply  barbed  head  of  which  is  attached  to  a  strong  cord,  six  or 
seven  hundred  feet  in  length.  The  harpooner  of  the  first  boat  that 
arrives  within  reach  of  the  whale,  throws  his  weapon  so  as  to 
cause  it  to  penetrate  deeply  and  remain  firmly  in  the  body  of  the 
animal,  who,  feeling  the  wound,  sometimes  turns  violently,  and 
exerts  his  powerful  tail  with  so  much  force  as  to  shatter  the  boat 
or  hurl  it  into  the  air.  Generally,  however,  the  whale  dives  im- 
mediately, dragging  after  him  the  cord  attached  to  the  iron  that 
has  been  planted  in  his  flesh.  This  is  the  critical  moment  for  the 
fishermen.  If  the  cord  does  not  run  out  with  sufficient  rapidity, 
or  gets  hitched,  the  whale  sinks  the  boat  and  all  the  crew,  and 
sometimes  it  has  happened  that  sailors,  by  being  caught  in  a 
loop  of  the  swiftly  running  cord,  have  been  almost  cut  in  two 
and  thrown  into  the  sea  never  to  be  seen  again  on  its  surface. 
The  rapidity  with  which  the  animal  flies  is  such  that  the  cord, 
from  rubbing  against  the  side  of  the  boat,  produces  dense  smoke, 
and  would  take  fire  were  it  not  kept  constantly  wet.  When  the 
first  line  has  almost  run  out,  the  fisherman  attach  a  second,  then 
a  third,  and  so  on  till  they  have  in  use  all  they  have  on  board, 
and  all  that  the  other  boats  can  supply.  The  length  of  line  they 
let  out  in  this  way,  sometimes  exceeds  ten  thousand  feet :  never- 
theless, it  is  not  always  enough,  and  then  they  are  obliged  to  cut 
loose  and  abandon  all  this  mass  of  cordage  as  well  as  their  har- 
poon, while  the  whale  prolongs  his  flight  without  returning  to 
the  surface.  Sometimes  the  animal  remains  under  water  more 
than  half  an  hour;  but  the  necessity  of  breathing  forces  him 
to  come  to  the  surface,  and  the  fishermen  who  are  dispersed  about, 
to  be  more  within  striking  distance,  endeavour  to  plant  a  second 
harpoon  in  his  body  or  pierce  it  with  lances.  When  the  whale 
thus  rises,  he  is  ordinarily  in  a  state  of  extreme  exhaustion,  and, 
in  proportion  as  his  blood  flows,  he  becomes  more  enfeebled; 
often  when  death  is  near,  he  yet  makes  a  last  and  terrible  effort, 
raises  his  tail  above  the  water,  and  agitates  it  with  a  convulsive 
movement  which  can  be  heard  at  a  distance  of  several  miles. 
Finally,  succumbing  altogether,  he  turns  upon  his  side  and  ex- 
pires. The  fishermen  hasten  to  pierce  his  tail  and  tie  to  it  ropes 
by  means  of  which  they  secure  the  immense  carcass  to  the  side 
of  their  ship ;  then,  armed  with  large  knives  and  a  sharp  instru- 
ment in  the  form  of  a  spade,  they  get  upon  it  and  cut  off  the 
blubber  in  slices  which  is  afterwards  tried  out. 


WHALE  FISHING. 


A  single  whale  sometimes  yields  as  much  as  a  hundred  to  a 
hundred  and  sixty  barrels  of  oil,  but  as  a  greater  number  of 
small,  than  of  large  whales  are  taken,  so  large  a  quantity  is  not 
obtained  from  them  all.  Scoresby  informs  us  that  498  whales, 
taken  in  twenty-eight  successive  voyages  in  the  seas  of  Green- 
land, yielded  4,246  tons  of  oil,  making  an  average  of  about  nine 
tons  to  each  whale.* 

The  Cachalots,  as  we  have  said  before,  furnish  much  less  oil, 
and  those  that  are  taken  within  the  tropics  are  much  leaner  than 
those  of  cold  seas.  A  male  Cachalot,  seventy  feet  in  length, 
yields  about  fourteen  tons  of  oil  and  spermaceti,  but  six  females 
yield  scarcely  as  much.  . 

The  northern  fishery  often  occupies  more  than  one  hundred 
and  fifty  English  ships,  and  the  southern  fifty  or  sixty.  In  1831 
there  were  despatched  for  Davis'  straits  and  Baffin s  Bay,  seventy 
five  ships,  which  captured  330  whales,  and  returned  with  4,100 
tons  of  oil  and  4000  quintals!  of  whalebone.  At  the  same  time, 
the  English  fitted  out  twelve  whalers  for  the  Greenland  seas, 
which  took  86  whales,  4,100  seals,  and  returned  with  700  tons 
of  oil  and  600  quintals  of  whalebone.  The  product  of  the  whole 
English  whale  fishery,  for  the  preceeding  year,  was  valued  at  about 
a  half  a  million  of  dollars. 

The  number  of  whalers  belonging  to  France  does  not  exceed 
twenty.  In  1837  the  number  of  vessels  belonging  to  the  United 
States  engaged  in  the  whale  fishery  was  580 — and  the  oil  brought 
home  that  year  is  set  down  at  181,724  barrels  of  sperm  oil,  and 
219,138  barrels  of  common  whale  oil. 

This  concludes  all  we  have  to  say  at  present,  about  mammiferous 
animals ;  we  next  preceed  to  the  consideration  of  birds,  which 
form  the  second  CLASS  of  the  BRANCH  of  VERTEBRATA. 


END    OP    THE    SECOND    BOOK    OP    NATURAL    HISTORY. 


*  A  ton  of  oil  contains   252  English  gallons  or  eight  barrels  of  31  i  gallons. 
t  A  quintal  is  one  hundred  pounds. 

12* 


MAMMALOGY. 


GLOSSARY. 


ABDOMEN. — From  the  Latin,  abdere, 
to  conceal;  the  bi'lly.  Tlie  chief 
viscera  contained  in  the  abdomen, 
are  the  stomach,  intestines,  liver, 
•fee. 

ABDOMINAL. — Relating  to  the  abdo- 
men. 

ABOMASUS. — Latin  ab,  from,  without, 
and  omassum,  stomach.  The  fourth 
stomach  of  Ruminants.  The  Ren- 
net. (See  page  106.) 

ACACIA. — From  the  Greek,  alee,  a 
point.  A  tree  with  a  tall  trunk 
that  bears  leguminous  flowers. 

ACCLIMATE — From  the  Greek,  klirna, 
a  region:  to  habituate  to  a  climate. 

ACEPHALA. — From  the  Greek,  a,  pri- 
vative, and  kephale,  head.  With- 
out a  head.  The  name  given  to  a 
division  of  molluscous  animals  that 
have  no  apparent  head. 

AERIAL  — From  the  Latin  aerius :  be- 
longing to  the  air. 

^EGAGRE. — From  the  Greek,  nix,  a 
goat,  and  agrios,  wild  :  wild  goat. 

J!EGAGRUS. — Latin  for  JEgngre:  wild 
goat.  (See  page  116.) 

ADIPOCIRE — From  the  Latin  adeps, 
fat,  and  cera,  wax:  an  animal  sub- 
stance analogous  to  wax  and  fat; 
spermaceti.  (See  page  1*29.) 

AFRICANUS — Latin.     African. 

AGGLUTINATE. — From  the  Latin  ag. 
glutinure,  which  is  formed  from  adt 
to,  and  gluten,  glue  :  to  join  parts 
together. 

AGILIS. — Latin.  Agile,  supply  light, 
prompt. 

Ar. — The  sloth — a  mine  derived  from 
the  cry  of  the  animal.  (See  p.  94  ) 

ALCES.—  Latin,  an  Elk, — one  of  the 
dogs  of  Acteon  was  so  called.  (See 
page  114.) 


ALIMENT. — From  the  Latin,  alimen- 
tam,  which  is  formed  from  oitre, 
to  nourish.  Any  substance,  which, 
if  introduced  into  the  system,  i» 
capable  of  nourishing  it  and  re- 
pairing its  losses.  Food. 

ALOU.VTTE — French  name  of  the  howl- 
ing  monkey.  (See  page  39.) 

ALPINUS. — Latin,  Alpine  ;  relating  to 
the  Alps. 

ALVEOLUS. — Latin.  The  hole  in  which 
a  tooth  is  placed. 

ALVEOLI. — Plural  of  alveolus.  Sock- 
ets  of  the  teeth. 

AMBERGRIS. — From  the  Arabic,  ani- 
bar,  or  rather  anhar,  as  written  in 
Spanish,  and  the  Fienchg-m,gray, 
which  litt  rally  rendered,  means 
"  gray  amber,"  to  distinguish 
it  from  "  yellow  amber"  of  the 
French,  which  is  a  kind  of  fossil 
resin  of  vegetable  origin,  and  gene- 
rally known  under  the  name  of 
Amber;  but  ambergris  originates 
in  the  spermaceti  whale,  and  in  its 
essential  properties  differs  alto- 
gel  her  from  amber,  with  which 
substance,  the  derivation  of  its*, 
name  might  lead  us  to  confound  it. 

AMERICANUS. — Latin.     American. 

AMMON. — From  the  Greek,  ammos, 
sand :  Grecian  Ram.  (See  p  ige 
117.) 

AMPHIBIA. — From  the  Greek,  amphi 
— on  two  side*,  both,  double,  and 
bios,  life :  animals  that  are  fitted 
for  living  both  on  land  and  in  the 
water. 

AMPHIBIOUS. — From  the  Greek — am- 
phi  double,  and  bios,  life — That 
which  partakes  of  two  natures,  so 
as  to  live  in  two  elements ;  as  in 
the  air  and  water. 


138 


MAM  MALOGY:— GLOSS  ARY . 


AMPHIBIUS. — Latin.  Amphibious. 
ANATOMY. —  From  the  Greek,  ana, 
through,  and  temno,  I  cut ;  the  des- 
cription of  the  structure  of  ani- 
mals. The  word  anatomy  properly 
signifies  dissection ;  but  it  has  been 
appropriated  to  the  study  and  know- 
ledge of  the  number,  shape,  situa- 
tion, structure,  and  connexion,  in 
a  word,  of  all  the  apparent  proper- 
ties of  organised  matter,  whether 
animal  or  vegetable. 

ANATOMICAL. — Relating  or  belonging 
to  anatomy. 

ANALOGOUS. — From  the  Greek,  ana, 
between,  and  logos  reason.  Hav- 
ing some  resemblance  or  relation, 
though  differing  in  essential  par- 
ticulars. Similar. 

ANGLE. — From  the  Latin,  angulus, 
which  is  derived  from  the  Greek  ag. 
kulos,  a  curve.  The  space  intercept- 
ed between  two  lines  that  meet  at  a 
point.  The  Facial  angle,  is  formed 
by  two  line--,  one  of  which  passes  ver- 
tically along  the  face  from  the  in- 
cisor teeth,  and  the  other  is  drawn 
horizontally  from  the  external  open- 
ing of  the  ear  to  the  same  teeth. 

ANGLICUS. — Latin.    English. 

ANIMAL — From  the  Latin,  animalis 
— a  name  given  to  every  animated 
being  provided  with  digestive  or- 
gans. 

ANIMALIA. — Latin.     Animals. 

ANIMALCULE — From  the  Latin,  Ani- 
malculum — a  diminutive  animal. 

AJVIMALCULA. — Plural  of  animalcu- 
lum — animals  that  are  only  per- 
ceptible by  means  of  the  micro- 
scope. 

ANNELIDES. — A  class  of  animals  with- 
out vertebrae. 

ANNULATED — From  the  Latin,  annu- 
lus,  a  ring;  marked  in  rings. 

ANOMALY.  —  Greek,  a  privative,  and 
omalos,  equal.  Irregularity,  devia- 
tion from  the  common  rule. 

ANTLER. — From  the  French,  andouil- 
ler, — properly  the  first  branch  of 
a  stag's  horns ;  but  it  is  applied  to 
all  the  branches. 

ANUS  — Latin.  The  fundament — the 
inferior  opening  of  the  bowels. 


APOPLEXY  — From  the  Greek,  apo, 
from,  and  plesso,  I  strike  :  a  disease 
of  the  brain,  an  obstruction  of  the 
nervous  principle  which  deprives 
the  body  suddenly  of  sensation  and 
motion. 

APPARATUS. — Latin,  ad,  for,  and  par- 
ore  to  prepare:  a  collection  of  in- 
struments  or  organs  for  any  opera- 
tion whatever.  An  assemblage  of 
organs. 

APPENDIX. — Latin  ad,  to,  and  pendere 
to  hang  :  something  added.  Any 
part  that  adheres  to  an  organ,  or 
is  continuous  with  it. 

AQUATICUS. — Latin.  Aquatic.  Rela- 
ting or  belonging  to  water. 

ARCHIPELAGO.  —  From  the  Greek, 
arche,  beginning,  andpelagos,  sea  ; 
an  extent  of  sea  sprinkled  with 
islands. 

ARCTOS. — Greek.    A  Bear. 

ARCTOMYS. — From  the  Greek,  arctos, 
a  bear,  and  mus,  a  mouse.  The 
Marmot.  (See  page  80.) 

ARGALI. — A  Wild  Ram. 

ARIES. — Latin.     A  Ram. 

ARMADILLO. — Spanish,  diminutive  of 
armado,  armed.  (See  page  94.) 
The  Brazilian  name  of  this  animal 
is  Tatou. 

ARVALIS. — Latin.  Relating  or  be* 
longing  to  fields. 

ARVICOLA. — Latin,  arvum,  a  field, 
and  colere,  to  cultivate.  (See  p.  83.) 

ARTICULATE — From  the  Latin,  arti- 
culuSi  which  is  the  diminutive  of 
artus,  a  lirnb,  which  is  derived 
from  the  Greek,  arthron,  a  joint. 
To  join  or  joint'.  To  form  words ; 
to  utter. 

ARTICULATA. — The  same  derivation 
as  articulate.  Animals  whose 
bodies  seem  to  consist  of  a  series 
or  succession  of  rings.  They  con- 
stitute the  third  BRANCH  of  the  ani- 
mal kingdom,  which  includes  In- 
sects, Crustacea,  Worms,  &c. 

ARTICULATION. — A  joint. 

ASINUS. — Latin.     An  ass. 

ATELES. — A  kind  of  monkey.  (See 
page  40.)  Athenians,  who  were 
exempt  from  certain  taxes,  were 
called  Attica. 


MAMMALOGY:-GLOSSARY. 


139 


AUCHENIA. — From  the  Greek  anchcn, 
the  neck.  The  genus  of  animals 
to  which  the  Llama  belongs,  is  so 
called,  probably  from  having  along 
neck. 

AUREUS. — Latin.  Golden.  Relating 
or  belonging  to  gold. 

AURICLE. — From  the  Latin,  auricula, 
which  is  the  diminutive  of  awns,  an 
ear.  The  two  auricles  of  the  heart, 
derive  the  name  from  their  resem- 
blance to  ears.  They  receive  the 
blood  from  every  part  of  the  body. 
The  two  venae  cavae  open  into  the 
right  auricle,  and  four  pulmonary 
veins  into  the  left  auricle.  (Sec 
First  Book  of  Nat.  History,  p.  35.) 

AUROCH. — A  sort  of  wild  bull,  (See 
page  119.) 

AVELLANARIUS. — From  the  Latin,  av- 
ellana,  a  filbert.  Relating  or  be- 
longing  to  filberts.  (See  page  81.) 

AVICULARIS. — From  the  Latin  avicula, 
which  is  the  diminutive  of  avis,  a 
bird.  Relating  or  belonging  to  birds. 

BACTRIANUS. — Latin.  Bactrian.  Re- 
lating or  belonging  to  Bactria. 

BALEN.  —  From  the  Latin,  balaena, 
which  is  derived  from  the  Greek, 
phalaina,  a  whale.  Whalebone. 
The  substance  put  into  ladies'  cor- 
sets, and  used  to  form  part  of  the 
frame  of  an  umbrella. 

BAL^SNA. — Latin.     A  whale. 

BAPTISMAL. — From  the  Greek,  baplo, 
I  plunge  into  water.  Rdaung,  or 
belonging  to  baptism.  The  name 
given  at  the  ceremony  of  baptism, 
is  the  baptismal  or  chri.-tian  name. 

BASQUES. — The  inhabitants  of  Biscay, 
a  province  of  Spain,  are  so  called. 

BEZOAR. — From  the  Persian  beazahar, 
antidote.  A  stone  formed  in  the 
bodies  of  certain  animals,  to  which 
Arabian  physicians  have  attributed 
great  virtues,  chiefly  that  of  resist- 
ing the  effects  of  poison.  An  an- 
cient chemical  preparation  to  which 
the  same  properties  were  attributed. 
Mineral  Bezoar,  an  oxyd  of  anti- 
mony. Vegetable  bezoar,  a  stony 
concretion  found  in  cocoa  trees.  The 
word  is  also  applied  to  other  natural 
etony  concretions. 


BILOBED — From  the  Latin,  bis,  twice, 
and  the  Greek  lobos,  a  lobe.  Having 
two  lobes. 

BIMANA. — From  the  Latin,  bis,  twice, 
and  manus,  hand.  The  first  family 
of  the  class  of  mammalia. 

BIPED — From  the  Latin,  bis,  twice, 
and  pes,  foot.  Animals  that  walk 
on  two  feet  are  biped. 

BLUBBER. — That  part  of  a  whale  from 
which  the  oil  is  obtained. 

BOREALIS. — Latin.     Northern. 

Bos. — Latin.     An  ox,  a  bull. 

BRADYPUS. — From  the  Greek,  bradust 
slow,  and  pous,  foot.  The  sloth. 
(See  page  93.) 

BRANCH  —  From  the  word,  Iranca, 
which  is  deiived  from  the  Latin, 
bractiium,  an  arm.  The  branches 
of  trees  were  viewed  as  their  arms 
Any  member  or  part  of  the  whole; 
any  section  or  sub-division.  The 
first  division  of  the  animal  king- 
dom is  into  BRANCHES.  (See  p.  1 6.) 

BRANCHIAE  —  Latin.  It  is  derived 
from  the  Greek,  bragchos,  the 
throat.  The  gills  of  fishes.  They 
are  the  respiratory  organs  of  fishes, 
and  are  very  different  from  lungs, 
both  in  their  form  and  structure. 

BUBALUS. — Latin.  An  animal  of  the 
genus  ox.  (See  page  120.) 

BUFFALO. — Probably  derived  from  the 
Greek  boubulos,  the  root  of  which 
is  bous,  an  ox. 

CACHALOT. — French.  The  spermaceti 
whale.  (See  page  128.) 

CAILLETTE. — French.  A  name  of  the 
fourth  stomach  of  Ruminating  ani- 
mals, derived  from  cailler,  to  cur- 
dle. The  fourth  stomach  of  a  calf, 
is  used  under  the  name  of  rennet, 
for  the  purpose  of  curdling  or  co- 
agulating milk. 

CALLOSITY.  —  Hardness,    induration, 
|      and  thickness  of  the  skin. 
I  CALLOUS. — From    the    Latin,  callus, 
\      hardness.     That  which  is  hard,  or 
induraled. 

CAMELEOPARDALIS. — From  the  Greek, 
kamelos,  a  camel,  and  pardalis,  a 
leopard.  The  ancient  name  of  the 
Giraffe. 

CAMELUS. — Latin.    Camel. 


140 


MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


CAMPAGNOL. -— French    name  of  the 

Fieldmouse. 
CANINE. —  From    the    Latin,    canis,  a 

dog.     The  name  of  certain  teeth. 
CANIS. — Latin.     Dog. 
CAPRA. — La?  in.     Goat. 
CARNARIA. —  From     the    Latin,    caro, 

carnis,    flesh.      The    name    of    an 

order  of  animals. 
CARNIVOROUS. — From  the  Latin,  caro, 

carnis,  flesh,  and  voro,  I  eat.    Ani 

mals  that  feed  on  flesh,  are  said  to 

be  carnivorous. 

CARNIVORA,—  Latin.     Carnivorou 
CASTOR. — Latin.     Beaver. 
CASTOREUM. — A  substance     obtained 

from  the  Beaver. 

CATUS. — Latin.     Sharp,  quick,  sly. 
CAUDAL. — From  the   Latin,  cauda,  a 

tail.     Relating  or  belonging  to  the 

tail. 
CEPHALOPODA. — From   the   Greek  ke 

phale,  head,  and  podos,  which  is  the 

genitive  case  of  pons,  a  foot.     Mol 

luscous   animals    whose   mouth    i: 

surrounded  with  fleshy   appendices 

which  serve  them  as  feet. 
CEREAL. — Relating   or    belonging    to 

Ceres,  the    goddess   of  agriculture 

Cereal  is  applied  to  the  various  sort 

of  nutritious  corn  or  grain. 
CERVICAL. — From   the  Latin,  cervix 

the  neck.     Belonging  or  relating  to 

the  neck. 
CERVUS. — Latin.    A  stag. 


CINEREA. — Latin.     Like  ashes  ;  of  an 

ash  colour. 

CIVETTA — Latin.  Civet.  The  word 
is  derived  from  the  Arabic,  zebed, 
or  zobad,  froth,  or  the  peculiar  se- 
cretion of  the  civet.  (See  p.  66.) 

CLASS. — In  Latin  classis,  which  comes 
from  the  Greek,  klesis,  which  is  de- 
rived from  kaleo,  I  call.  The  order 
according  to  which  persons  or 
tilings  are  arranged  or  distributed. 

CLASSIFICATION. — The  act  of  forming 
classes. 

CLAVICLE. — From  the  Latin,  clavis,  a 
key.  The  collar  bone. 

CONCOLOR. — Latin.  Of  the  same 
colour. 

CONDVLE. — From  the  Greek  kondulos, 
a  knot,  an  eminence,  a  joint.  A 
small  round  eminence  of  bone  en- 
tering into  the  composition  of  an 
articulation. 

CONTORTED. — From  the  Latin,  cantor- 


queo. 


I  twist  about.     Twisted. 


CONVOLUTION. — From  the  Latin,  con~ 
volvere,  to  entwine.  The  cerebral 
convolutions  are  the  round,  tortuous 
projections  obsei  ved  on  the  surface 
of  the  brain. 

CORTICAL. — From  the  Latin,  cortex, 
bark.  Belonging  or  relating  to  bark. 

CRANIUM. — From  the  Greek,  kranon, 
head.  The  skull. 

— Latin  name  of  the  Ham- 
ster. 


CETACEA. — In  Latin  cetaceus,   which  <CRISTATA. — Latin.     Tufted,    combed, 
is  formed  from  the  Greek,  ketos,  a^     crested,  wearing  a  crest, 
the   word 


whale.     Naturalists  use 

to   designate  pisciform    mammals, 

that    have    fins  in   place    of  feet, 

and  inhabit  the  sea.      (See    page 

122.) 

CHAMOIS. — From  the  Greek  kemas,  a 
roe-buck.  A  ruminating  animal  of 
the  genus  of  Antelope. 

CHANFPviN.-^-From  the  Latin,  camus, 
a  bit  or  curb,  andfrenum,  a  bridle. 
That  part  of  the  head  of  a  horse, 
which  is  between  the  brows,  from 
the  ears  to  the  nose. 

CHEIROPTERA. — From  the  Greek  keir, 
hand,  and  pteron,  wing.  Having 
winged  hands.  Name  of  a  family 
of  mammals,  vulgarly  called  bats. 


CRUSTACEA. — From  the  Latin,  crusta, 
a  crust.  A  class  of  animals  whose 
bodies  are  inclosed  in  a  covering, 
like  the  crab. 

CUNICULUS. — Latin.     A  nbbit. 

CVNOCEPHALUS.  From  the  Greek, 
kvon,  a  dog,  and  kephale,  head.  A 
species  of  monkey  i*  so  called,  be- 
cause its  head  resembles  that  of  a 
dog.  It  is  the  baboon  of  the 
moderns. 

DAMA. — Latin.     A  fallow-deer.         , 

DANICUS. — Latin.  Danish.  Belong- 
ing to  Denmark. 

DASYPUS.— From  the  Greek,  dasus, 
thick,  hairy,  and  pous,  foot.  Hairy 
foot. 


M  AMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


141 


DECIDUOUS. — From  the  Latin,  cadere, 
to  fall.     Falling,   that   which   falls 
off — not  permanent. 
DECUMANUS. — Latin.    Tenth.    Huge, 

fair,  of  a  large  size. 
DELPHINUS. — Latin.     A  Dolphin. 
DELPHIS. — The    name    of  a  priestess 
of   the  temple   of  Delphos,    which 
Linnaeus  gave  to  an  animal  of  the 
order  of  cetacea. 

DENTAL. — From  the  Latin,  dens,  a 
tooth.  Relating  or  belonging  to  the 
teeth. 

DENTICULATE. — Having  the    edge   or 

border  like  teeth.  Armed  with  teeth. 

DERMA. — Greek.    The  skin. 

DIDELPHIS. — From   the    Greek,    dis, 

twice  or  double,  and  delphus  a  womb 

The  name  of  a  genus  of  the  older 

of  Marsupialia. 

DIGITIGRADA. — From  the  Latin  digi- 
tus,  a  finger  or  toe,  and  gradus,  a 
step.  Name  of  a  tribe  of  animals 
that  in  walking  rest  only  their  toes 
on  the  ground. 

DIGITIGRADE. — Animals  that  walk  on 
the  toes,  without  resting  the  whole 
foot  on  the  ground. 
DIURNAL. — From  the  Latin,  dies,  a 
day.  Belonging  or  relating  to  the 
day. 

DOE. — A  she  deer.  « 

DOMESTICUS. — Latin.     Domestic. 
DORCAS. — Greek.     A  Gazel. 
DORMOUSE. — From   the  Latin.     Dor- 
mire,  to  sleep,  and  mus   a    mouse. 
(See  page  80.) 

DORSAL. — From  the  Latin,  dorsum, 
the  back.  Belonging  or  relating  to 
the  back. 

DOWN. — From  the  Danish,  duun. 
Soft  wool,  or  tender  hair,  fur.  Soft 
feathers. 

DROMEDARIUS. — Barbarous  Latin,  for- 
med  from  the  Greek,  dromos,  a 
race,  speed.  The  Dromedary,  a 
species  of  camel  with  one  hump, 
is  thus  named  from  its  swiftness. 
ECHIDNA. — From  the  Greek.  A  viper 
or  snake.  The  name  of  a  monster, 
the  upper  part  of  whose  body  was 
in  the  form  of  a  beautiful  woman, 
and  the  lower  part  like  that  of  a 
hideous  serpent.  The  name  of  a 


genus  of  animals  of  unusual    con- 
struction.    (See  page  96.) 
ECHINODERMATA. — From   the    Greek, 
echinos,   a    hedgehog,   and  derma, 
skin.     Animals  whose  skin  is   like 
that  of  the  hedgehog. 
EDENTATA. — From  the  Latin,  e,  priva- 
tive,  and    dens,   tooth.       Without 
teeth.     The  name   of  an   order    of 
mammiferous    animals    that     ara 
without  teeth. 
EDENTATE. — Without  teeth. 
ELEPHAS. — Latin.     An  Elephant. 
ELEPHUS. — Latin.     Belonging  or   re- 
lating to  an  elephant. 
ENAMEL,   (of  the   teeth.)— The    sub- 
stance  which  covers  the  crowns  of 
the  teeth.     It  is  of  a  white   colour, 
very  smooth,  and  polished,  and  suf- 
ficiently hard   to   strike   fire   with 
steel.     Enamel    is    thickest  where 
the  teeth  are  in  contact,  and  thin- 
nest  about  the  neck   of  the   tooth. 
The  fibres  of  the  enamel  are   per. 
pendicular   to   the   surface  of  the 
teeth,  on  which   they    seem,  as  it 
were,  planted.   This  gives   them  a 
velvety  appearance  when  examined 
by   the    microscope.     The   enamel 
has  no  blood  vessels,  and  is  not  re- 
newed when  removed. 
ENCEPHALON. — From   the   Greek,  eg, 
in,  and  kephale,  head.    The   brain 
and  spinal  marrow. 
ENTELLUS. — Latin  name   of  an   Apo, 

or  Guenon  of  Malabar. 
EPIDERMIS. — From    the    Greek,   epi, 
upon,  and  derma,   skin.     The   ex- 
ternal  covering  of  the  derma.   The 
cuticle  or  scarf-skin. 
EPIDERMIC. — Relating  or  belonging  to 

the  epidermis. 

EPHEMERAL. — From  the  Greek,  ejri, 
in,  and  emera,  a  day.  Lasting  but 
a  day.  Fleeting,  transient,  momen- 
tary. 

EQUUS. — Latin.     A  horse. 
ERINACEUS. — Latin.     Hedgehog. 
ERMINEA. — Latin.     Belonging  or  re- 
lating to  the  ermine. 
ESPALIER. — French.  From  the  Italian, 
spalliere.    Trees  which  are  attached 
to,  and  supported  by  a  wall,  in   a 
row. 


142 


MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


EXCRETION. — From  the  Latin,  excer- 
ner?,  to  separate.  The  separation, 
or  throwing  off  those  matters  from 
the  body  of  an  animal,  which  are 
supposed  to  be  useless,  as  perspira- 
tion, &c,  The  matters  thrown  off 
from  the  body  as  useless,  are  termed 
excretions. 

EXCRETORY. — Belonging  or  relating 
to  excretion.  (See  First  Book  of 
Natural  History,  pasje  9S.) 

EXOTIC. — From  the  Greek,  exotikos, 
strange,  foreign. 

EXTREMITIES. — From  the  Latin,  extre- 
mus,  extreme  ;  the  end  of  a  thing. 
The  limb-;  the  legs,  and  arms. 

EXTRARIUS — Latin.  Outward,  foreign, 
strange. 

EXTENSORS. — From  the  Latin,  exten- 
dere,  to  stretch  out.  The  muscles 
whose  office  it  is  to  extend  certain 
parts 


FILIFORM. — From  the  Latin,  filum,  a 

thread,  and  forma,   form.     Having 

the  shape  of  a  thread. 
FLEX. — From  the   Latin,    flectere,  to 

bend. 
FLEXOR. — A  muscle  whose  office  it  is 

to  bend  certain  parts. 
FOINA. — From    the    Latin,    fuscina, 

which     is     formed    from    fuscuSj 

brown.     The  name  ot  a  species  of 

marten.     (Sue  page  58.) 
FOLIACEOUS. — From  the  Latin,/o/iu/n, 


a   leaf, 
leaves. 


Consisling   of  laminae  or 


FOLLICLE — From  the  Latin,/o//icu/us, 
which  is  the  diminutive  of  follis,  a 
bag.  A  diminutive  glandular  sac 
or  bag. 

FORAMEN. — Latin.  A  hole ;  from /oro, 
I  pierce.  A  cavity  pierced  through 
and  through  Also,  the  orifice  of 
a  canal. 


FACIAL. — From  the  Latin,  fades,  the  \  FORAMINA. — The  plural  of  foramen. 


face.  Belonging  or  relating  to  the 
face.  Facial  angle,  (See  ANGLE.) 

FAMILIARIS. — Latin.  Familiar.  Be- 
longing or  relating  to  a  family. 
Domestic. 

FAMILY. — From  the  Latin,  familia, 
family.  All  those  of  the  same 
blood,  children,  brothers,  parents, 
&c.  The  assemblage  of  several 
genera  of  animals  that  resemble 
each  other  in  many  respects. 

FAWN. — The  young  deer. 

FELIS.— Latin.     A  cat. 

FELT. — A  sort  of  cloth  made  of  wool, 
or  fur,  united  without  weaving.  The 
fabric  or  foundation  of  hats. 

FIBER. — Latin.     A  beaver. 

FIBRE  — From  the  Latin,  fibra.  An 
organic  filament,  of  solid  consis- 
tence, and  more  or  less  extensible, 
which  enters  into  the  composition  of 
every  animal  and  vegetable  texture. 

FIBROUS.— Composed  of  fibres. 

FIBRO-CARTILAGINOUS. — Of  the  nature 
of  fibro-cartilage,  which  is  an  or- 
ganic tissue,  partaking  of  the  nature 
of  fibrous  tissue,  and  of  that  of  car- 
tilage. It  is  dense,  resisting,  elastic, 
firm,  supple,  and  flexible. 

FILAMENT. — From  the  Latin  Jilamen- 
turn,  A  small  thread 


FOSSA. — In  the  plural,  Fossae.  From 
the  Latin,  fodio,  I  dig.  A  cavity  of 
greater  or  less  depth,  the  entrance 
to  which  is  always  larger  than  the 
base.  The  nasal  fossae  are  two 
large  cavities,  situate  between  the 
oibits  below  the  cranium,  and  lined 
by  the  pituitary  or  schneiderian 
membrane  :  the  internal  nostrils. 

FRICATOR. — Latin.     A  rubber. 

FRUGIVORA. — From  the  Latin,  fruges, 
all  kinds  of  fruit,  serving  for  food, 
that  the  earth  brings  forth,  and 
vorare,  to  eat.  Animals  that  feed 
exclusively  on  vegetable  substances. 

FRUGIVOROUS — Fruit-eating.  Animals 
that  feed  exclusively  on  vegetable 
substances  are  frugivorous. 

FUR. — Soft  hair  of  beasts.  Skin  with 
soft  hair,  with  which  garments  are 
lined  for  warmth,  or  covered  for 
ornament  (See  DOWN.) 

FUNCTION. — From  the  Latin,  fungor^ 
I  act,  or  discharge  an  office.  The 
action  of  an  organ  or  system  of 
organs. 

FURO. — Barbarous  Latin,  formed  from 
furvus,  dark,  black,  dusky.  A  name 
given  to  a  species  of  marten  on  ac- 
count of  its  habit  of  seeking  game 
in  dark  holes  or  burrows. 


MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


143 


GALEOPITHECUS. — From  the  Greek, 
gale,  a  weasel,  and  pithekos,  a  mon- 
key. The  name  of  a  tribe  of  ani- 
mals. (See  page  45.) 

GALLICUS. — Latin.     G.tllic.      French. 

GANGLION. — Fro  in  tin  Greek,  gang- 
lion, a  knot.  Nervous  ganglions 
are  enlargements  or  knots  in  the 
course  of  a  nerve. 

GASTEROPODA. —  From  t'ie  Greek,  £v/s- 
ter,  belly,  and  pous,  foot.  Name  of 
a  genus  of  molluscous  animals  that 
crawl  by  means  of  the  inferior  sur- 
face of  the  body. 

GAZELLE, or  GAZEL — From  the  Arabic, 
alghazal,  gazelle.  A  species  of  an- 
telope. 

GENUS. — Latin.  A  kindred,  breed, 
race,  stock,  lineage,  or  family, 

GENERA. — Plural  of  genus. 

GENERIC. — Belonging-  or  relating  to 
genus. 

GEORY^HUS. — From  the  Greek,  ge,  the 
earth,  and  orusso,  I  dig.  The  Lem- 
ming. (See  page  84.) 

GLACIAL. — From  the  Lati  i,  glades, 
ice.  Belonging  or  relating  to  ice. 

GLADIATOR. — Latin.  A  sword-player, 
a  fencer,  a  swords-rnan. 

GLIS. — Latin.     Dormouse. 

GRMUS. — Latin.     Grecian. 

GRAMPUS. — From  the  French,  grand- 
poisson,  big  fish,  pronounced  by  the 
Normans,  grapois,  whence  the  En- 
glish word  Grampus.  An  animal 
of  the  order  of  cetacea. 

GRUNNIENS. — Latin. — Grunting  like  a 
hog. 

GUENON. — French.     An  ape. 

GULO. — Barbarous  Latin.  The  glutton 

HALICORE. — From  the  Greek,  als,  the 
sea,  and  kore,  a  maiden.  A  sea- 
nymph;  a  mermaid. 

IlALMATURUs.~From  the  Greek  alma, 
a  leap,  and  oura,  a  tail.  The  Kan- 
garoo is  so  called  from  leaping  by 
the  aid  of  its  tail. 

HEMISPHERE — From  the  Greek  einisus, 
half,  and  sphaira,  sphere  or  globe. 
One  half  of  a  sphere  or  globe,  or 
globular  body  ;  the  brain  is  divided 
into  two  hemispheres. 

HERBACEOUS. — From  the  Latin,  herba, 
an  herb.     Belonging  to  herbs. 
13 


HERBIVORA. — Latin.     Herbivorous. 

HERBIVOROUS. — From  the  Latin,  her- 
ba, herb  or  plant,  and  vorare  to  e  it. 
Herb-eating.  Animals  that  feed 
chiefly,  or  entirely  on  herbs  or 
plants,  are  herbivorous. 

HIBERNATE. — .From  the  Latin,  hiber- 
nare,  to  winter,  to  be  in  winter 
quarters.  Anim.ils  that  retire  and 
sLep  throughout  the  winter  are  said 
to  hibernate. 

HIBERNATION. — The  act  of  hiberna- 
t  ng.  Being  in  winter  quarters. 

HIND. — A  female  deer. 

HIPPOPOTAMUS. — From  the  Greek,  ip- 
pox,  a  horse,  and  potamos,  a  river. 
The  river  hor=e. 

HIRCUS. — Latin.     A  he  go.it. 

HUMERUS. — The  hone  of  the  arm, 
which  is  situate  between  the  shoul- 
der joint  and  the  elbow. 

HYOID. — From  the  Greek,  u,  and 
eidos,  lesemblance.  Resembling 
the  shape  or  form  of  the  letter  U. 
The  Os  hyoides,  the  hyoid  bone,  is 
a  very  moveable  bony  arch  placed 

.  horizontally,  in  the  substance  of  the 
soft  parts  of  the  neck,  at  the  root 
of  the  tongue.  It  does  not  articu- 
late with  any  other  bone  of  the 
skeleton,  and  is  only  connected  to 
it  through  the  medium  of  muscles 
and  ligaments. 

HYFSIPRVMNUS. — From  the  Greek,  ipsi, 
high,  nndprumnog,  behind,  extreme. 
The  Potoroo. 

HYSTRIX. — From  the  Greek,  ustrix. 
which  is  formed  of  us,  a  hog,  and 
thrix,  a  bristle.  The  Porcupine. 

INCHNEUMON. — From  the  Greek,  ich- 
neud,  I  pursue,  I  follow  in  the  track. 
The  Mangouste,  or  Pharaoh's  nt. 

INCISOR. — From  the  Latin,  incido,  I 
cut.  The  teeth  which  occupy  the 
anterior  part  of  the  upper  and  lower 
jaws,  are  called  incisors,  or  incisor 
teeth,  because  they  are  used  for 
cutting  the  food  in  the  manner  of 
cutting  instruments. 

C  From  the  Latin,  indicarc 

INDEX.          J  to  point  out,  to  indicate. 

INDICATOR.  ]  The  fore-finger,  the   in- 
^  dex-finger. 

INDICUS. — Latin.     Indian. 


144 


MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


INSECTIVORA. — Latin.      Insectivorous. 

INSECTIVOROUS. — From  the  Latin,  t'n- 
secta,  insects,  and  vorure,  to  eat 
Insect-eating.  Animals  that  feed 
on  insects  are  insectivorous. 

INTEGUMENT. — From  the  Latin,  tegere, 
to  cover.  The  skin. 

INUUS. — (One  of  the  names  of  Pan, 
the  heathen  god  of  shepherds,  and 
of  flocks.)  The  Barbary  ape  has 
received  this  name. 

ISCHIATIC. — From  the  Greek,  ischion, 
the  haunch.  Belonging  or  relating 
to  the  haunch. 

KNOBBER. — The  name  of  a  young 
stag  when  the  first  rudiments  of  the 
horns  appear  in  the  form  of  a  tuber- 
cle or  knob. 

LABYRINTH — From  the  Latin,  Inbyrin- 
thuS)  which  is  for  rued  from  the  Greek, 
laburintlios,  a  p'ace  full  of  turnings, 
the  exit  of  which  is  not  easily  dis- 
coverable. Anatomists  have  given 
this  name  to  the  aggregate  of  parts, 
constituting  the  internal  ear. 

LACERTA. — Latin.     A  lizard. 

LAMANTIN. — From  the  Barbarous  Lat- 
in, manalus,  which  is  formed  from 
manus,  a  hand.  An  animal  of  the 
Order  of  Cetacea.  (See  page  124  ) 

LAMINA. — Latin.  A  plate,  or  thin 
piece  of  metal  or  bone. 

LAMINAE. — Latin.    Plural  of  Lamina. 

LAMINAR. — Composed  of  Laminae. 

LAMELLA. — Latin.  A  little  thin  plate 
or  piece. 

LAMELLAE. — Latin.  Plural  of  Lamella. 

LAMELLAR. — Composed  of  Lamellae. 

LANIGERA. — Latin.     Lanigerous. 

LANIGEROUS. — From  the  Latin,  lana, 
wool,  and  -gerere,  to  bear.  Wool 
bearing. 

LARVA. — Latin.     A  mask.    An  insect 

*      after  it  has  left  the  egg,  and  before 

it  assumes  the  form  of  a   crysa'is, 

is  called  a   larva,   because   in   this 

state  it  is,  as  it  were,  masked. 

LARVAE. — The  plural  of  larva. 

LARYNX. — From  the  Greek,  larugx^a. 
whistle.  The  apparatus  of  voice. 
It  is  situate  at  the  superior  and  an- 
terior part  of  the  neck ;  and  at  the 
top  of  the  trachea,  with  which  it 
communicates. 


LATITUDE. — From  the  Latin,  lalitudo, 
breadth.  The  extent  of  the  earth 
reckoned  from  the  equator  to  either 
pole.  Latitude  is  measured  by  de- 
grees and  minutes.  The  latitude 
of  any  place  is  its  distance  from 
the  equator  towards  either  pole. 

LEMMUS. — Barbarous  Latin.  A  Lem- 
ming. 

LEMUR. — Barbarous  Latin.  A  name 
given  to  mammalia  of  the  family 
of  makis  and  some  others. 

LEO. — Latin.     A  Lion. 

LEPUS. — Latin.     A  Hare. 

LETHARGY. — From  the  Greek,  lethe, 
fbrgetfulness,  and  argos,  prompt. 
A  profound  and  unnatural  stupor, 
which  deprives  the  individual  of 
the  use  of  his  senses.  Insensibility 
or  indifference  to  everything. 

LETHARGIC. — Belonging  or  relating 
to  lethargy. 

LIGAMENT. — From  the  Latin  ligare,to 
tie.  A  name  given  to  fibrous  struc- 
tures, which  serve  to  unite  bones, 
and  form  articulations. 

LINE. — A  rope,  or  cord.  The  tenth 
part  of  an  inch. 

LITTER. — A  brood  of  young. 

LOR  IP. — The  name  ofa  kind  of  monkey. 

LUNGS. — The  organs  of  respiration  in 
mammiferous  animals.  Vulgarly 
called  the  lights. 

LUPUS. — Latin.     A  Wolf. 

LUTRA. — Latin.     An  Otter. 

MACACUS. — Barbarous  Latin.  Ma- 
caque. 

MACAO.UE. — French.  The  Macaco,  a 
species  of  ape  with  a  tail. 

MACROCEPHALUS, — From  the  Greek, 
makros,  long,  big,  and  kephtle,  head. 
Long  or  big  head.  A  name  of  the 
spermaceti  whale. 

MAGOT. — French.     A  baboon. 

MAMMA. — Latin.  The  breast,  pap,  or 
teat. 

MAMMAE. — Plural  of  mamma. 

MAMMAL — Any  animal  having  teats 
for  suckling  its  young,  is  called  a 
mammal. 

MAMMALIA. — From  mamma,  a  breast. 
Animals  that  suckle  their  young. 

MAMMALOGY. — From  the  Latin,  mam- 
ma, breast,  and  the  Greek,  logos 


MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


145 


discourse  or  treatise.  That  part  of 
Natural  History  which  treats  of 
Tnammiferous  animals. 

MAMMARY. — From  the  Latin  mamma, 
a  breast.  Belonging  or  relating  to 
the  breast. 

MAMMIFER^E. — From  the  Latin,  mam- 
mo,  a  breast,  and  /ero,  I  carry. 
Animals  that  have  teats. 

MAMMIFEROUS — Belonging  or  relating 
to  mammiferse. 

MAMMOTH. — An  extinct  animal  of  the 
family  of  Proboscidiana. 

MANATUS. — Barbarous  Latin,  formed 
from  manus,  a  hand.  The  Lam- 
antin.  (See  page  124.) 

MANATI.I — Plural  of  Manatus. 

MANYPLIES. — The  third  stomach  of 
ruminating  animals. 

MARITIMUS. — Latin.  Maritime.  Re- 
lating  to  the  sea. 

MARSUPIALIA. — From  the  Latin,  mar- 
supium,  a  purse,  pouch  or  bag. 
Animals  that  have  on  the  anterior 
surface  of  the  body,  a  pouch,  formed 
of  the  skin,  for  the  accommodation 
of  their  young. 

MARSUPIALS. — Marsupialia.  Animals 
provided  with  pouches  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  their  young. 

MARTKS. — Latin.     A  marten,  a  ferret. 

MASTICATION.- -From  the  Greek,  mas- 
tichao,  I  chew.  The  act  of  chew- 
ing food,  to  impregnate  it  with  sali- 
va, and  prepare  it  for  the  digestion 
it  has  to  undergo  in  the  stomach. 

MASTIVUS. — Barbarous  Latin,  formed 
from  the  Italian,  mastino,  a  large 
dog.  The  mastiff. 

MASTODON. — An  extinct  animal  of  the 
family  of  Proboscidiana. 

MAXILLARY. — From  the  Latin,  max- 
illa, a  jaw.  Belonging  or  relating 
to  the  jaws. 

MELES. — Latin.     A  Badger. 

MEMBRANA. — Latin.     A  membrane. 

MEMRRANE.— A  name  given  to  different 
thin  organs,  representing  species  of 
supple,  more  or  less  elastic,  webs. 

MEMBRANOUS.  —  Belonging  to  mem- 
brane. 

MEPHITIS. — Latin.  A  stink,  an  un- 
pleasant smell.  The  name  given  to 
the  skunk  on  account  of  its  odour. 


MERINO  — Spanish.  Wandering  or 
removing  from  pasture  to  pasture. 
The  name  of  a  kind  of  sheep  with 
very  fine  wool,  originally  from 
Spain. 

METACARPUS. — From  the  Greek,  meta, 
after,  and  karpos,  the  wrist.  That 
part  of  the  hand  which  is  between 
the  wrist  and  fingers. 

METATARSUS. — From  the  Greek, meta, 
after,  and  torsos,  the  instep.  That 
part  of  the  foot  which  is  between 
the  instep  and  toes. 

MOLAR. — From  the  Greek,  mvlos,  a 
millstone,  or  grindstone  ;  or  from 
the  Latin,  moZo,  I  grind.  That 
which  bruises  or  grinds.  The  name 
of  certain  teeth. 

MOLAR  TEETH — The  grinders.  Jaw 
teeth. 

MOLLUSCA. — From  the  Latin,  mollis, 
soft.  A  class  of  marine  animals 
without  vertebrae,  which  have  blood 
vessels,  a  spinal  marrow,  and  a  sim- 
ple body,  without  articulated  limbs. 

MOLLUSCOUS. — Relating  to  Mollusca. 

MOLOSSUS. — Barbarous  Latin.  A  spe- 
cies of  large  dog.  (See  page  64.) 

MONILEFORM. — From  the  Latin  moniZe, 
a  necklace,  and  forma,  shape,  form. 
In  the  form  of  a  necklace  or  string 
of  beads. 

MONODON. — From  the  Greek,  monos, 
single,  and  odous,  o'dontos,  a  tooth. 
The  name  of  the  Narwhal,  from 
having  a  single  tusk. 

MONOSYLLABIC. — From  the  Greek,  mo- 
nos,  single,  and  sullabe,  a  sylable. 
Consisting  of  but  one  syllable. 

MONOTREMATA. — From  the  Greek,  mo- 
wos,  single,  and  trema,  a  perforation 
or  hole.  The  name  of  a  family  of 
animals  found  in  New  Holland. 
(See  page  96.) 

MONTANUS. — Laiin.  Mountainous.  Re- 
lating to  mountains. 

MOSAIC. — -From  the  Greek,  mouseion, 
mows/0/?,  and  mosion,  which  signify 
the  same  thing  in  the  Greek  of  the 
middle  ages,  as  the  musivum  opus, 
of  the  Latins,  a  museum,  a  place 
designed  for  study.  Some  add,  that 
it  is  because  cabinets  or  museums 
were  ornamented  at  first  with  works 


146 


MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


of  this  kind.  A  work,  in  which, 
by  means  of  small  stones  and  little 
pieces  of  differently  coloured  glass, 
figures  or  even  entire  pictures  are 
represented. 

Moscnus. — Barbarous  Latin,  formed 
from  the  Arabic  mosch.  Musk. 

MOSCHATUS. — Barbarous    Latin.     Be- 


longing or  relating  to  musk, 
fumed  with  musk. 


Per- 


MOSCHIFERUS. — Latin.  From  moschus, 
and/ero,  I  bear.  Musk  bearing. 

MOTIVE. — From  the  Latin,  moveo,  I 
move.  That  which  excites  motion. 

MOTOR. — From  the  Latin,  moveo,  I 
move.  That  which  causes  motion. 
A  mover. 

MULOT. — French.  A  sort  of  Field- 
mouse. 

Mus. — Latin.     A  Mouse. 

MUSCULUS. — Latin.     A  little  mouse. 

MUSK. — An  animal  substance  of  a 
very  diffusible  odour,  bitter  taste, 
and  deep  brown  colour.  It  is  used 
as  a  medicine  and  perfume.  The 
name  of  an  animal. 

MUSTELA. — Latin.     A  Weasel. 

MUZZLE.— That  part  of  the  head  of 
the  dog,  and  certain  other  animals, 
which  comprises  the  mouth  and  nose. 

MYOXUS.— From  the  Greek,  mus,  a 
mouse,  and  ozus,  sharp-pointed.  A 
rat  with  a  pointed  nose. 

MVRMECOPHAGA. —  From  the  Greek, 
murmex,  an  ant,  and  phago,  I  eat. 
Ant-eaters. 

MYSTECETUS. — From  the  Greek,  mus- 
tus,  a  nose,  and  chaite  a  bristle.  A 
name  given  to  a  species  of  Cetacea, 
that  has  whalebone. 

WARES. — Latin.     The  nostrils. 

NASAL. — From  the  Latin,  nasus,  a 
nose.  Belonging  or  relating  to  the 
nose.  Nasal  fossae.  (See  Fossa.) 

NATATION. — From  the  Latin,  natatio, 
swimming.  The  act  of  swimming, 
or  supporting  one's  self,  or  moving 
upon  the  water. 

NICTITANS.— Latin.  Winking.  The 
membrana  nictitans,  is  a  sort  of 
internal  eyelid,  found  in  many 
mammals. 


NITELA. — Latin, 
mouse. 


A  sort   of  Field- 


NOCTURNAL. — From  the  Latin,  noxt 
the  night.  Belonging  or  relating  to 
the  night.  Noctural  animals  are 
those  which  sleep  during  the  day, 
and  are  active  only  in  the  night. 

OCCIPUT. — The  back  part  of  the  head. 
The  hind-head  in  opposition  to  the 
lore-head. 

OCCIPITAL. — Relating  or  belonging  to 
the  occiput. 

OCELLATA. — From  the  Latin,  oculus, 
an  eye.  Having  marks  of  an  eye. 

ODORIFEROUS. — From  the  Latin,  odor, 
a  scent,  and  /ero,  I  bear.  Scent,  or 
odour-bearing. 

(ESOPHAGUS. — From  the  Greek,  oiso, 
I  carry,  and  phagein,  to  eat.  The 
gullet.  The  membranous  canal 
which  conveys  food  from  the  mouth 
to  the  stomach. 

OLFACTORY. — From  the  Latin  olfactus, 
the  smell.  Belonging  or  relating 
to  smell. 

OMASUM. — Latin.  The  manyplies,  or 
third  stomach  of  ruminants. 

OMNIVOROUS. — From  the  Latin,  omnis, 
all,  and  vorare,  to  eat.  Applied  to 
animals  that  eat  all  kinds  of  food, 
both  animal  and  vegetable. 

ONAGGA. — Probably  from  the  Greek, 
ones,  an  ass,  and  agrios,  wild.  The 
mountain  horse,  or  a  wild  ass. 

ORDER — An  arrangement,  disposition. 

ORDINARIA. — Latin.  Ordinary,  com- 
mon. 

OREILLARD. — French.  Having  long 
ears.  The  name  of  a  kind  of  bat. 

ORGAN. — From  the  Gieek,  organont 
an  instrument.  Part  of  an  orga- 
nised being,  destined  to  exercise 
some  particular  function ;  for  ex- 
ample, the  ears  are  the  organs  of 
hearing,  the  muscles  are  organs  of 
motion,  &,c. 

ORGANIC. — Relating  to  an  organ.  Com- 
posed of  organs. 

ORGANIZATION. — The  mode  or  manner 
of  structure  of  an  organized  being. 

ORNITHOLOGY. — From  the  Greek  ornis, 
in  the  genitive  case,  ornithos,  a  bird, 
and  logos,  a  discourse.  The  natu- 
ral history  of  birds. 

ORNITHORYNOHUS. — From  the   Greek, 
]     ornis,  ornithos,  a  bird,  and  rugchos, 


MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


147 


a  beak  or  muzzle.    The  name  of  an 
animal.     (See  page  9  6.) 

OURANG-OUTANG. — From  the  Malay, 
ourang,  a  reasonable  being,  a  man, 
and  outang,  wild.  The  wild-man. 

OVIPAROUS. — From  the  Latin,  ovum, 
an  egg,  and  parere,  to  bring  forth. 
Animals  that  multiply  by  means  of 
eggs,  are  oviparous. 

Ovrs. — Latin.     A  Sheep. 

PACHYUERMATA.  —  From  the  Greek, 
pachus,  thick,  and  derma,  skin. 
The  name  of  a  family  of  animals. 

PALMAR. — From  the  Latin,  palma,  the 
palm.  Belonging  or  relating  to  the 
palm  of  the  hand. 

PALMATE. — Having  the  toes  united  by 
a  membrane. 

PAPILLA. — Latin.  A  nipple.  A  name 
given  to  small  eminences,  which 
appear  to  be  formed  by  the  ulti- 
mate expansion  of  the  vessels  and 
nerves. 

PAPILLA.— Plural  of  Papilla. 

PARACHUTE. — From  the  Greek,  para, 
against,  and  the  French,  chute,  a 
fall.  A  machine,  somewhat  in  the 
form  of  the  top  of  an  umbrella, 
used  to  moderate  the  descent  of 
those  who  ascend  in  balloons,  and 
guarantee  them  against  the  effects 
of  a  sudden  fall. 

PARADOXUS. — Latin.  Strange,  won- 
derful, unusual. 

PARASITE. — From  the  Greek,  para, 
near,  and  sitos,  corn.  One  who  is 
near  the  food.  A  hanger-on. 

PARDUS. — Latin.     A  Panther. 

PARIETES. — From  the  Latin,  paries,  a 
wall.  A  name  given  to  parts,  which 
form  the  inclosure — the  limits  of 
different  cavities  of  the  body. 

PARIETAL  (protuberances.)  The  emi- 
nences in  the  middle  part  of  the 
parietal  banes,  which  form  the  up- 
per and  lateral  parts  of  the  head. 

PAUNCH — The  first  stomach  of  Ru- 
minants. 

PEDIMANA — From  the  Latin,  pes, 
pedis,  a  foot,  and  manus  a  hand. 
A  family  of  mammals  that  have 
a  thumb  on  the  hind  feet,  which 
fits  them  to  perform  the  office  of 
hands. 

13* 


PEGASUS. — In  Greek,  pagasos,  formed 
irom  pege,  a  fountain.  The  celebra- 
ted winged  horse  of  the  poets,  which, 
by  a  single  kick  caused  the  foun- 
tain of  Hippocrene  to  gush  forth  on 
Mount  Helicon.  The  genius  of 
poetic  inspiration. 

PELTRY. — From  the  Latin,  pellis,  a 
skin,  a  hide.  A  name  given  to  des- 
ignate all  kinds  of  skins  collective- 
ly that  are  dressed  with  the  hair 
and  fur  upon  them. 

PELVIS. — Latin.  A  basin.  The  name 
of  the  bony  structure  at  the  lower 
part  of  the  trunk,  which  forms  the 
inferior  boundary  of  the  abdomen, 
gives  support  or  place  of  foundation 
to  the  spinal  column,  and  affords 
points  of  articulation  for  the  thigh 
bones,  constituting  the  hip  joint. 

PEMMECAN. — The  name  given  by  cer- 
tain North  American  Indians  to  the 
muscular  fibre  of  beasts,  after  it 
has  been  dried  and  powdered  with- 
out the  addition  of  any  salt.  This 
article  has  the  quality  of  remaining 
good,  and  fresh  for  a  long  time,  and 
is  used  by  voyagers  and  travellers 
as  a  convenient  article  of  diet,  form- 
ing, when  boiled  in  water,  a  fresh, 
nutritious  soup.  The  best  pemme- 
can  is  made  of  the  flesh  of  the  buf- 
falo. The  flesh  of  the  musk  ox  is 
also  prepared  in  this  way. 

PENDENT,  (or  pendant)  From  the  Lat- 
in, pcndo,  I  hang.  Hanging. 

PETROUS. — From  the  Greek,  petra, 
a  rock,  a  stone.  A  part  of  the  tem- 
poral bone,  which  contains  the  in- 
ternal organs  of  hearing,  is  so  called 
from  resembling  a  stone  in  hardness. 

PHALANGES. — The  plural  of  Phalanx. 

PHALANX. — From  the  Greek,  phalagx, 
a  file  of  soldiers.  The  bones  com- 
posing the  fingers  and  toes.  They 
are  named  first,  second,  and  third 
phalanges. 

PHALANGER. — The  name  of  an  animal 
which  is  remarkable  for  the  singu- 
lar conformation  of  its  phalanges. 
(See  page  74.) 

PHALANGISTA. — Latin.     Phalangers. 

PHARAONIS. — Latin.  Relating  or  be- 
longing to  Pharaoh. 


148 


MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


PHARYNX. — From  the  Greek, pharugx, 
the  pharynx.  The  swallow.  The 
superior  opening  ofthe  (Esop'iagus. 

PHASCOLOMYS. — From  tlie  Greek,  pha- 
*tolos,  a  pouch.  The  name  of  a 
genus  of  marsupials. 

PHOCA. — Lati'i.     A  Seal. 

PHCECENA. — The  systematic  name  of 
porpoises. 

PHTHISIS. — From  the  Greek, phthed,  I 
dry  up,  I  waste  away.  Usually  ap- 
plied to  consumption,  or  wasting 
away,  from  a  particular  diseased 
condition  of  the  lungs 

PHYLLOSTOMA. — From  the  Greek, phul- 
lon,  a  leaf,  and  sterna,  a  mouth.  The 
name  of  a  kind  of  bat.  (See  pa^e 
45.) 

PHYSETER. — From  the  Greek,  phusao, 
I  blow.  The  name  of  a  kind  of 
whale. 

PISCIFORM. — From  the  Latin,  piscis, 
a  fish,  and  forma,  form.  Of  the 
shape  or  form  of  a  fish. 

PIPISTRELLUS. — The  name  of  a  kind 
of  bat. 

FLANTIGRADA. — Plantigrade  animals. 

PLANTIGRADE — From  the  L  dinplanta, 
the  sole  of  the  foot,  and  gradi,  to 
walk.  Applied  to  certain  mam- 
miferous  animals  that,  in  walking, 
rest  the  entire  sole  upon  the  ground. 

POLYPE. — From  the  Greek,  polus, 
many,  and  pous,  foot.  A  sort  o^ 
aquatic  animal,  whose  me  nbranous 
and  tubu'ar  body  is  termin  itcd  by 
many  filaments,  which  serve  it  b./th 
as  feet  and  arms  for  seizing  its 
prey. 

POLYPUS. — Latin.     Polype. 

POLYPI. — Plural  of  Polypus. 

POMERANUS. — Latin.  Relating  or  be- 
longing to  Pomerania,  a  province 
of  Prussia. 

PORCUPINE. — From  the  Lntin,  porous, 
a  hog,  and  spicatus,  from  spicu,  a 
head  of  w"heat,  a  spine.  An  ani- 
mal resembling  a  hog  with  the  skin 
armed  with  spines. 

PORC-EPIC. — French.     A  Porcupine. 

PORCELLUS.— Latin.  The  diminutive 
of  porous,  a  hog.  A  pig. 

PORPOISE. — From  the  Latin,  porous,  a 
hog,  and  piscis,  a  fish.  Hog-fish. 


PREHENSILE. — From  the  Latin,  prc- 
hendere,  to  lay  hold  of.  The  pre- 
hension of  aliment  consists  in  lay. 
ing  hold  of,  and  conveying  food  in- 
to the  mouth. 

PROBOSCIDIAN. — From  the  Greek,  pro- 
boskis,  a  proboscis  or  trunk.  The 
name  applied  to  animals  of  the 
family  that  includes  the  elephant. 

PROBOSCIDIANA. — The  name  of  the 
family  of  animals  that  includes  the 
elephant. 

PROCESS. — A  natural  eminence  or  pro- 
jection of  bone. 

PROCYON. — Latin.     A  rackoon. 

PROGRESSION. — From  the  Latin  pro- 
gressio,  which  is  formed  from  prot 
before,  and  gradus,  a  pace  or  step. 
A  movement  in  advance,  a  going 
forward.  The  movement  of  pro- 
gression is  peculiar  to  animals. 

PSALTERIUM. — A  name  of  the  third 
stnnruch  of  ruminants. 

PTEROMYS. — From  the  Greek,  pteron, 
a  wing,  and  wus,a  mouse.  The  sys- 
tematicn  tme  ofthe  flying-squirrels. 

PULMONARY. — Belonging  or  relating 
to  the  lungs. 

PUTORIUS. — Latin.  From  putor,  a 
stink.  The  systematic  name  of 
the  polecat. 

QUADRUMANA. — From  the  Latin,  quad- 
rinus,  formed  from  quatuor,  four, 
and  manus,  hand.  The  name  of 
the  order  of  mammals  that  possess 
four  hands. 

QUADRUI  ED. —  From  the  Latin,  quad, 
rinuft,  and  pes,  a  foot.  Having  four 
fe,t. 

RADIATA. — From  the  Latin,  radius,  a 
spoke.  The  name  given  to  the 
fourth  BRANCH  of  the  amrnal  king- 
dom, on  account  of  tluir  configu- 
ration. 

RAMUSCULE. — From  the  Latin,  ramus* 

a  branch.     A  diminutive  branch. 
•  RATTL"--. — Barbaioua  Latin.     A  rat. 

RECURVED. — Bent  backward. 

REGIMEN.— From  the  Latin,  regere, 
to  govern.  The  rational  and  metho- 
dic;il  use  of  food,  and  of  everything 
essential  to  life ;  both  in  a  state  of 
health  and  disease.  It  is  often  re- 
stricted, in  its  meaning,  to  diet. 


M  AMM  ALOGY:— GLOSS  ARY. 


149 


REGURGITATE. — From   the   Latin,  re, 
again,  and  gurges,   a   gulf,   whirl- 
pool,   or    stream. 
The  word  is  used 
return  of  food  to  the  mouth  in  ru- 


To  throw  back, 
to  describe   the 


ru- 
the 


minants   after 
swallowed. 


it    has    been   once 


RUMINATE, — To  chew  the  cud. 

RUMINATION — From  the  Latin, 
minatio,  the  act  of  chewing 
cud. 

RUMINANT. — An  animal  that  chews 
the  cud. 

RUMINANTIA. — The  systematic  name 
of  animals  that  ruminate. 

RUPICAPRA. — From  the  Latin,  rupes,  a 
rock,  and  capra,  a  goat.  The  sys- 
tematic name  of  the  chamois. 

SAGOUIN. — French.  A  marmoset.  A 
sort  of  monkey.  All  American 
monkeys  whose  tails  are  not  pre- 
hensile, are  so  called. 

SAJOU, — French.  A  species  of  mar- 
moset. 

SAKI. — A  sort  ot  monkey. 

SALIVA. — Formed  from  the  Latin,  so?, 
salt.  Spittle.  An  inodorous,  trans- 
parent, slightly  viscid  fluid,  which 
is  secreted  by  several  glands,  and 
poured  into  the  mouth  through 
their  respective  duels.  It  consists 
of  water,  mucus,  a  particular  ani- 
mal matter  and  salts  of  soda  and 
potash.  Its  use  is  to  assist  in  the 
process  of  digestion,  by  mixing 
with  the  alimentary  ball  during 
mastication. 

SALIVARY. — Belonging  or  relating  to 
saliva. 

SAPAJOU. — French.  A  species  of  mon- 
key. 

SARIGUE. — French.     An  Opossum. 

SAURIA. — From  the  Greek,  sauros,  a 
lizard.  The  name  of  an  order  of 
reptiles  with  long,  scaly  bodies,  and 
long  tails,  resembling  a  lizard. 

SCAPULA. — The  shoulder  blade. 

SCIURUS. — Latin.     A  Squirrel. 

SCROPHA,  or  Scrofa. — Latin.     A  Sow. 

SEMNOPITHECUS. — From     the    Greek, 
semnos,  venerable,  and  pithekos,  a 
monkey.     (See  page  38.) 
rows.    The  matter  thrown  out,  or  <SEROTINUS. — Latin.     Belonging  or  re- 


REGURGITATION. — The  act  of  throwing 
back  into  the  mouth  food  that  has 
been  swallowed. 

RENNET. — The  fourth  stomach  of  ru- 
minants. When  the  fourth  stomach 
of  the  calf  is  salted  and  dried,  it 
possesses  the  property  of  coagula- 
ting milk,  when  a  portion  of  it  is 
soaked  in  water,  and  the  infusion 
is  added  to  the  milk. 

REPTILE. — From  the  Latin,  repere,  to 
crawl.  An  animal  that  crawls,  that 
draws  itself  along  on  its  belly,  like 
worms  and  serpents.  By  extension, 
an  animal  that  has  feet  so  short  that 
it  seems  to  crawl  rather  than  walk. 

RESPIRATION. — From  the  Latin,  res- 
piio,  I  take  breath.  A  functioi 
proper  to  animals,  the  object  of 
which  is,  to  place  the  materials  of 
the  blood  in  contact  with  atmos- 
pheric air,  in  order  that  it  may  ac- 
quire the  vivifying  qualities  that 
belong  to  arterial  blood. 

RETICULUM. — The  second  stomach  of 
ruminants. 

RHINOCEROS.—  From  the  Greek,  n'n,  a 
nose,  in  the  genitive  rinos,  and 
keras,  a  horn.  The  name  of  an 
animal  from  its  having  a  horn  on 
the  nose. 

RHINOLOPHUS. — From  the  Greek,  n'n, 
in  the  genitive,  rinos,  a  nose,  and 


lophos,  a  tuft  or  crest, 
of  a  kind  of  bat. 


The  name 


RIDDANCE. — A  word  employed  to  des- 
ignate the  refuse  matter  thrown  out 
by  animals  in  digging  their  .bur- 


delivered  by  a  saw,  in  its  passage 
throug-h  any  substance,  may,  per- 
haps, be  thus  designated. 

RODENTIA. — From  the  Latin,  rodere, 
to  gnaw.  The  systematic  name  of 
an  order  of  mammals. 

RUMEN. — The  paunch,  or  first  stom- 
ach of  ruminants. 


lating  to  the  evening 
SIMIA. — L;itin.     A  Monkey. 
SINUOUS. — Relating  or  belonging  to  a 

sinus.     Partaking  of  the  nature  of 

a  sinus. 
SINUS. — Any    cavity,  the   interior  of 

which  is  more  expanded   than  the 

entrance. 


150 


MAMMALOGY:— GLOSSARY. 


SIREN,  or  Syren. — From  the  Greek. 
sen-fir,  a  chain,  from  the  supposed 
strength  of  its  charms.  A  fabulous 
monster. 

SKELETON. From  the  Greek,  skello, 

I  dry.    The  aggregate  of  the  hard 
parts  of  the  body,  or  the  bones. 

SOLIPEDE. — From  the  Latin,  solidipe.s, 
which  is  formed  from  solidus,  solid, 
and  pee,  a  foot.  The  term  is  ap- 
plied to  those  animals  that  have  but 
one  hoof  on  each  foot,  as  the  horse. 

SOREX. — Latin.     A  Shrew,  or  fieldrat. 

SPALAX. — The  name  of  a  species  of 
rodentia. 

SPECIFIC. — Relating  or  belonging  to 
species. 

SPIRACLE. — From  the  Latin,  spirare, 
to  breathe.  The  breathing  hole  or 
nostril  of  the  cetacea. 

STERNUM  — The  breast  bone. 

Sus. — Latin.    A  hog.  a  sow. 

SURMULOT. — French.  Name  of  a  kind 
of  large  rat. 

SYLVATICUS. — Latin.    Sylvan.    Wild. 

SYNOPSIS. — From  the  Greek,  st/n,  with, 
together,  and  optomai,  I  see.  That 
which  is  seen  at  a  glance,  or  at  one 
view. 

SYNOPTICAL. — Belonging  or  relating  to 
a  synopsis.  Partaking  of  the  na- 
ture of  a  synopsis. 

TALPA. — Latin.    A  mole. 

TARANDUS. — Barbarous  Latin,  formed 
from  Tarande,  a  name  of  the  rein- 
deer. 

TARDIGRADA. — From  the  Latin,  tar- 
dust  slow,  and  gradus,  a  step.  The 
systematic  name  of  the  sloths. 

TARDIGRADE. — Same  derivation  as  the 
above.  Slow-stepping. 

TARSUS. — From  the  Greek,  torsos,  any 
row,  the  sole  of  the  foot.  The  pos- 
terior part  of  the  foot,  which,  in 
man,  consists  of  seven  bones,  and 
forms  .the  heel  and  instep. 

TAURUS. — Latin.    A  bull. 

TEGUMENTARY. — From  the  Latin,  teg- 
vmcn,  a  covering.  Belonging  or 
relating  to  the  tegument  or  skin. 

TEMPORAL. — From  the  Latin,  ternpus, 
time,  the  temple,  so  called,  it  is  said, 
because  on  this  part,  the  hair  be- 
gins  to  turn  white,  and  indicate 


age.  Belonging  or  relating  to  the 
temples.  The  temporal  bone  is 
placed  at  the  lateral  and  lower  part 
of  the  skull  of  which  it  forms  a 
part,  and  contains  within  it  the 
organs  essential  to  the  sense  of 
hearing. 

TENDON. — From  the  Greek,  teino,  I 
stretch.  Strong,  white,  fibrous  cords, 
which  connect  the  muscles  to  the 
bones  which  they  move.  The  ten- 
dons may  be  considered  as  so  many 
cords,  for  transmitting  the  motion  of 
the  muscles  to  the  bones,  or  levers. 

TENDINOUS. — Belonging  to,  or  parta- 
king of  the  nature  of  tendon. 

TERMITES. — The  name  of  a  species  of 
insect.  White  ants. 

TERRARIUS. — Barbarous  Latin.  A 
terrier  dog. 

TERR^E-NOV^E. — Latin  name  of  New- 
foundland. 

THORAX. — From  the  Greek,  thorax, 
the  chest.  It  is  bounded  posteriorly 
by  the  vertebree;  laterally,  by  the 
ribs  and  scapula;  anteriorly,  by  the 
sternum ;  above,  by  the  clavicle ; 
and  below,  by  the  diaphragm.  It 
is  destined  to  lodge  and  protect  the 
chief  organs  of  respiration  and  cir« 
culation  :  — the  lungs  and  heart- 

TIGRIS.— Latin.    A  tiger. 

TIMIDUS — Latin.    Timid. 

TRACHEA. — From  the  Greek,  trachus, 
rough,  and  or/eria,  an  artery,  which 
is  formed  from  aer,  air,  and  terein, 
to  keep.  The  canal  which  conveys 
the  air  to  the  lungs.  The  windpipe. 

TRENCHANT. — Cutting. 

TRICHECHUS. — Barbarous  Latin,  for- 
med from  the  Greek,  trix,  hair. 
Systematic  name  of  the  morse. 

TRIDACTYLUS. — From  the  Greek,  treis, 
three,  and  daktulos,  a  finger.  Three 
fingered. 

TRIPOD. — From  the  Greek,  t reis,  three, 
and  poKS,  a  foot.  Having  three  feet. 

TRITON.—  From  the  Greek,  treis, 
three,  and  tonos,  a  tone.  The  name 
of  a  fabulous  god,  that  accompa- 
nied Neptune,  blowing  a  shell  as  a 
trumpet.  Most  sea-gods  are  called 
Tritons,  and  are  generally  repre- 
sented in  the  act  of  blowing  shells. 


MAMMALOGYr-GLOSSARY. 


151 


TRUNK. — The  body  without  including 
the  head  or  extremities.  The  pro- 
boscis of  an  elephant. 

TRUNCATED. — Cut  short.  Cut  abrupt- 
ly,  or  square  off. 

TUBERCLE. — From  the  Latin,  tuber,  a 
knot,  a  small  knot  or  projection. 

UNGUICULATA. — From  the  Latin,  un- 
guis,  a  (finger)  nail.  Animals  that 
have  small  nails  on  their  fingers  or 
toes. 

UNGUICULATE. — Having  small  nails. 

UNGULATA.  —  Animals  having  large 
nails  or  hoofk 

UNGULATE. — Having  hoofe. 

UNICORN. — From  the  Latin,  unus, 
one,  and  cornu,  a  horn.  Having 
one  horn.  The  name  of  a  fabulous 
animal. 

URSUS — Latin.     A  bear. 

URUS. — Latin.  A  buffo lo. 

VENTRICLE.— From  the  Latin,  ventri- 
culus,  a  little  belly,  formed  from 
venter,  a  belly.  A  name  given  in 
anatomy  to  various  parts. 

VERMIFORM. — From  the  Latin,  rermts, 
a  worm,  and/orma,  form.  Worm- 
shaped.  An  epfthet  applied  to  cer- 
tain carnivorous  animals,  on  ac- 
count of  their  ability  to  pass  through 
narrow  openings. 

VERTAGUS. — Latin.  Name  of  a  par- 
ticular kind  of  dog. 

VERTEBRA. — From  the  Latin,  vcrtere, 
to  turn.  This  name  has  been  given 
to  each  of  the  bones,  which,  by 
their  union,  form  the  vertebral  or 
spinal  column,  vulgarly  called  the 
back  bone. 

VERTEBRAE. — The  plural  of  vertebra. 

VERTEBRAL. — Belonging  or  relating  to 
vertebrae. 


VERTEBRATA. — Animals  that  possess 
vertebrae.  The  first  branch  of 
the  Animal  kingdom.  (See  page 
18.) 

VERTEX. — Latin.  The  top  or  crown 
of  the  head. 

VEPPERTILIO. — Latin.     A  bat. 

VETCH. — A  kind  of  bean. 

VICUNNA. — Barbarous  Latin.  A  vi- 
cunia. 

VIRGINIANA.  —  Latin.  Belonging  to 
Virginia. 

VIRIDIS. — Latin.    Green. 

VIVERRA. — Latin.     A  ferret. 

VIVIPAROUS. — From  the  Latin,  vivus, 
alive,  and^ario,  I  bring  forth.  Ani- 
mals whose  young  are  born  with- 
out being  hatched,  are  said  to  be 
viviparous. 

VULGARIJ>. — Latin.    Common. 

VULPES. — Latin.     A  fox. 

WEN. — A  kind  of  tumour. 

WITHERS. — The  joining  of  the  shoul- 
der bones  at  the  bottom  of  the  neck 
and  mane,  towards  the  upper  part 
of  the  shoulder. 

ZIBELLINA. — Modern  Latin.  Relat- 
ing to  the  sable. 

ZOOLOGICAL. — Belonging  or  relating  to 
zoology. 

ZOOLOGY. — From  the  Greek,  zdon,  an 
animal,  and  logos,  a  discourse.  That 
part  of  natural  history  which  treats 
of  animals. 

ZOOLOGIST. — One  devoted  to  the  study 
of  zoology. 

ZOOPHYTE. — From  the  Greek,  zoon 
an  animal,  and  phuton,  a  plant. 
An  animal  without  vertebrae,  or 
extremities,  that  attaches  itself  to 
solid  bodies  and  seems  to  live  and 
vegetate  like  a  plant. 


FINIS. 


Plate  1, 


1. 


Fig.  1.  to  3. — Order  of  Bimana. 
Fig.  4.  to  12. — Order  of  Quadrumana. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    1. 

ORDER    OF   BIMANA. 

Fig.     1.  Head  of  a  man  of  the  Caucasian  race. 
Fig.    2.  Head  of  a  man  of  the  Mongolian  race. 
Fig.    3.  Head  of  a  man  of  the  Ethiopian  race. 
(Frontispiece.  Head  of  a  man  of  the  American  race.) 

ORDER   OF    QTJADRUMANA. 

FAMILY    OP    MONKEYS. 
Fig.    4.  Head  of  a  young  Ourang-Outang. 
Fig.     5.  A  Chimpanzee. 
Fig.     6.  The  Semnopithecus  entellus. 
Fig.     7.  The  Cynocephalus,  or  dog-headed  monkey. 
Fig.    8.  The  black  Ateles — a  monkey  belonging  to  the  division  of  Sajous. 
Fig.    9.  The  Alouatte,  or  howling  monkey ;  a  female  carrying  a  young 
one  on  her  back. 

FAMILY    OF    OUISTITIS. 

Fig.  1 0.  The  Ouistitis. 

FAMILY    OF    MAKIS. 

Fig.  12.  Hind  paw  of  a  Maki,  to  show  the  peculiar  form  of  the  nail  on 
the  index  finger. 

Fig.  11.  The  red  maki. 


Plate  2. 


Order  of  Carnaria. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    2. 
ORDER  OF  CARNARIA. 

FAMILY    OF    CHEIROPTERA. 

Fig.     1.  A  but  (Oreillard)  with  the  win<:s  extended. 

Fig.     2.  A  b,t  with  the  wings  folded  as  when  walking. 

Fig.  3.  The  bones  of  .he  wing  of  a  bat,-*,  the  humerus.-&,  the  fore- 
arm  —  c.  the  thumb.—  d,  the  fingers. 

Fig.     4.  Head  of  the  Vampire. 

Fig.  6.  Teeth  of  a  frugivorous  bat,  viewed  from  above  (one  half  of  the 
upper  jaw  only  is  represented). 

Fig.    5.  Teeth  of  an  insectivorous  bat. 

Fig.     7.  The  Galeopithecus,  with  its  young  one. 

FAMILY    OF    INSECTIVORA. 
Fig.    9.  The  common  shrew. 
Fig.  10.  The  common  mole. 


*         l11;  B°::eS  °f  the  fore-ann  and  hand  <*  themo1e.-«f  the  fore-arm.- 
o,  the  hand. 

Fig.    8.  Teeth  of  an  insectivorous  animal.—  ;n,  the  molar  teeth. 

FAMILY    OF    CARNIVORA. 

Fig.  12    Teeth  of  a  carnivorous   animal  (the  Glutt  >n.)-i,  incisors-, 
ines.-/-m,  false  molars.-ca,  carnivorous  tooth.-«,  tuberculous  tooth. 

TRIBE    OF    PLANTIGRADES. 
Fig.  14.  Fore  paw  of  a  bear,  seen  from  below. 
Fig.  13.  White  bear  of  the  Icy  ocean. 
Fig.  15.  The  Glutton. 

TRIBE   OF   DIGITIGRADES. 
Fig.  1  6.  The  common  polecat. 
Fig.  17.  The  common  civet. 
14 


Plate  3. 


3. 


Fig.  1  to  8.     Order  Carnaria. 
Fig.  9  to  12.     Order  Marsupialia. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    3. 

Fig.  1.  The  Mangouste  of  Egypt,  or  Ichneumon  of  the  ancients. 

F,g.  3.  The  Hyena. 

Fig.  5.  The  skull  of  a  Lion. 

Fig.  4.  The  Royal  Tiger. 

Fig.  2.  Head  of  the  Wolf. 

Fig.  I).  Paw  of  a   Digiligrade. — ff,  the  humerus  — 6,  the    fore-arm.-— 
C,  the  carpus. — d,  the  metacarpus. — e,  the  phalanges  and  toes. 

TRIBE    OF    AMPHIBIA. 

Fig.    7.  The  common  Seal. 

Fig.     8.  Head  of  a  Morse. 

ORDER    OF    MARSUPIALIA. 

Fig.    9.  The  Opossum  represented  erect,  with  its  young  ones  entering 
the  mammary  pouch. 

Fig.  11.  The  Kangaroo. 

Fig.  10.  Teeth  of  the  Opossum. — a,  the  incisors. — 6,  tlie  canines. — c,  the 
molars. 

Fig.  12.  Teeth  of  the  giant  Kangaroo. 


Plate  4. 


Fig.  1  to  5.     Order  of  Edentata. 
Fig.  6  to  12.     Order  of  Rodentia. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    4. 

ORDER    OF    EDENTATA. 

Fig.    3.  Skull  of  the  AY  or  Sloth. 
Fig.     1.  The  AY,  or  Sloth. 
Fig.    2.  The  Armadillo. 
Fig.    4.  The  Pangolin,  or  Manis. 
Fig.    5.  The  Ornithorynchus. 

ORDER    OF   RODENTIA. 

Fig.  12.  The  Beaver. 

Fig.  11.  The  Jerboa. 

Fig.  10.  The  Hamster. 

Fig.    9.  The  Marmot. 

Fig.    8.  The  Flying  Squirrel 

Fig.     6.  The  teeth  of  a  squirrel. 

Fig.    7.  Front  view  of  the  lower  incisors  of  a  Squirrel 

14* 


Plate  5. 


Fig.  1.  to  4. — Order  of  Pachydermata. 
Fig.  5.  to  13,— Order  of  Ruminantia. 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    5, 
ORDER   OF    PACHYDERMATA. 

Fig.     1.  Head  of  the  Asiatic  Elephant. 

Fig*     2.  Head  of  the  African  Elephant. 

Fig.     3.  The  Rhinoceros. 

Fig.     4.  The  Hyppopotamu*. 

Fig.     5.  The  wild  Lama  or  Gluanaco. 

Fig.     6    Head  of  the  Giraffe. 

Fig.     7.  The  common  Stag. 

Fig      8.  Head  of  the  female  Rein -deer. 

Fifr.     9.  Head  of  the  Chamois. 

Fi?.  10.  Head  of  the  J^agre. 

Fig.  11.  Head  of  the  Argali,  or  wild  sheep  of  Asia. 

Fig.  12.  Head  of  the  Mouflon. 

Fig.  13.  The  Yack. 


Plate  6. 


Fig.   1  to  5.     Order  of  Ruminatia  continued. 
Fig.  6  to  9.    Order  of  Cetacea* 


EXPLANATION    OF    PLATE    6. 

Fig.     1.  Head  of  the  Buffalo. 

Fig.    2.  Head  of  the  Musk  Ox  of  America. 

Fig.    3.  Skull  of  the  Ox. 

Fig.  4.  Stomach  of  a  ruminant  (sheep.) — o,  the  oesophagus. — pt  the 
paunch. — fe,  the  bonnet  or  reticulurn.— /,  the  many  plies  or  omassum, — cat 
the  cailktte  or  rennet  b;ig. d,  the  intestine. 

Fig.  5.  The  same  opi  ned  to  show  how  the  cEsophagus  terminates  in  the 
bonnet  and  manyplies.  (The  same  letters  indicate  the  same  parts.) 

ORDER    OF    CETACEA. 

Fig.     6.  The  porpoise. — a,  the  vent  or  spiracle. 
Fig.     7.  The  Whale. 

Fig.  8.  Skull  of  a  Whale.—/,  the  whalebone. — w,  the  upper  jaw.— <, 
the  cranium.— mi,  the  lower  jaw. 

Fig.    9.  The  Cachalot,  or  Spermaceti  whale. 


RECOMMENDATORY   NOTICES. 


OPINION  OF  WILLIAM  S.  ZANTZINGER,  M.D. 
MESSRS.  TURNER  AND  FISHER  : — 

The  flattering  reception  which  the  previous  volumes  of  Dr.  Ruschenberger's  Series  have  met 
•with  from  the  public,  has  already  proved  that  his  efforts  to  diffuse  a  taste  for  the  study  of 
Natural  History,  especially  among  the  younger  members  of  the  community,  and  the  means 
•elected  for  the  purpose  have  been  fully  appreciated.  Any  commendation  of  the  present  number 
of  the  Series,  "  The  Elements  of  Botany,'1  would  therefore  seem  almost  superfluous. 

It  is  certainly  admirably  adapted  for  "beginners,  whether  young  or  old,"  containing  a  large 
amount  of  information  in  a  small  compass,  and  easy  of  comprehension. 

WILLIAM  S.  ZANTZINGER,  M.D. 


Philadelphia,  April  25, 1844. 


OPINION  OF  SAMUEL  GEORGE  MORTON, 
Professor  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  Pennsylvania  Medical  College. 
MESSRS.  TURNER  AND  FISHER:— 

I  have  carefully  examined  the  Elements  of  Botany,  constituting  part  of  Dr.  Ruschenberger's 
Series  of  "  First  Books  of  Natural  History,"  and  am  highly  pleased  with  the  plan  and  details 
of  the  work.  It  appears  to  combine  whatever  is  requisite  in  elementary  science,  and  is  well 
calculated  to  mingle  pleasure  and  instruction  in  the  mind  of  the  learner. 

SAMUEL  GEORGE  MORTON,  M.D. 


May  7, 1844. 


OPINION  OF  THOS.  D.  MUTTER,  M.D. 

Professor  of  the  Institutes  and  Practice  of  Surgery,  in  the  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Phila. 
MESSRS.  TURNER  AND  FISHER:— 

Gentlemen,  —  I  have  just  examined  the  "  Elements  of  Botany,"  by  Dr.  Ruschenberger,  and 
heartily  recommend  the  work  to  the  notice  of  all  who  desire  information  on  the  subject  of 
which  it  treats.  Like  the  previous  numbers  of  the  Series,  it  fully  sustains  the  high  reputation  of 
its  author.  Respectfully,  yours,  &c. 

THOS.  D.  MUTTER,  M.D. 

OPINION  OF  JOSEPH  CARSON,  M.D. 
Professor  of  Materia  Medico  in  the  Philadelphia  College  of  Pharmacy. 

To  MESSRS.  TURNER  AND  FISHER  : — 

1  have  examined  the  "  Elements  of  Botany,"  belonging  to  Ruschenberger's  Series,  and  regard 
it  as  the  best  book  of  the  kind  that  has  fallen  under  my  observation.  The  descriptions  are 
accurate ;  and,  as  every  thing  required  by  the  learner  is  presented  succinctly  and  lucidly,  a  full 
knowledge  of  rudimentary  Botany  may  be  obtained  from  it.  Aa  a  pocket  volume,  it  will  be  of 
advantage  to  the  adept,  who  has  occasion  often  to  refresh  his  memory  upon  first  principles. 
Even  the  general  reader  may  derive  information  from  the  account  of  plants  employed  in  th« 
arts,  or  affording  articles  of  luxury.  Modest  as  is  the  form  of  this  little  production,  it  is  en- 
dowed with  high  merit,  and  cannot  fail  to  be  useful  to  the  public,  by  whom  it  will  be  appreciated. 

Very  sincere.,.**  j.  CARSON. 

Philadelphia,  April  18, 1844. 

OPINION  OF  ROBERT  BRIDGES,  M.D. 

Lecturer  on  Chemistry. 
MESSRS.  TURNER  AND  FISHER:— 

Gentlemen,— I  have  read  and  examined  somewhat  in  detail  the  "  Element*  of  Botany,"  by 
Dr.  Rusck».nberger,  and  can  state  with  pleasure  that  it  is  calculated  to  sustain  the  reputation 
of  the  Scries  of  "  First  Books,"  of  which  it  constitutes  a  part 

Very  respectfully,  yours,  &c. 

ROBERT  BRIDGES, 
PUUdelphfc,  April  20, 1844, 


RECOMMENDATORY    NOTICES. 

OPINION  OF  THE  RIGHT  REV.  CHAS.  P.  McILVAINE,  p.  D. 

Bishop  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  Diocese  of  Ohio ;  President  of 
Kenyan  College,  fyc. 

Kenyon  College,  Gambier,  Ohio,  Feb.  1842. 
MESSRS.  TURNER  &  FISHER: 

Gentlemen,— On  reaching  home,  after  a  long  absence,  I  had  the  pleasure 
of  reciving  the  copy  of  the  work  prepared  by  Dr.  Ruschenberger  on  Physi- 
ology and  Animal  Mechanism,  for  the  use  of  schools.  If  my  opinion  of  its 
merits  can  be  of  any  service  to  its  circulation,  I  am  free  to  say  that  not  only 
are  the  subjects  of  the  work  such  as  ought  to  enter  into  the  course  of  study 
of  the  higher  classes  of  our  schools,  but  this  work  seems  to  me  to  be  well 
adapted  to  the  want  of  .schools  in  reference  to  its  subjects.  At  any  rate,  I 
know  not  a  better  for  its  professed  purposes. 

Yours,  very  truly,  and  respectfully, 

CHAS.  P.  McILVAINE. 

OPINION  OF  THE  HON.  LEVI  WOODBURY, 

United  States  Senator  from  New  Hampshire. 

Washington,  28th  Jan.  1842. 
MESSRS.  TURNER  &  FISHER. 

Gentlemen, — Yours  of  the  22d  inst,  has  been  received,  with  the  First  and 
Second  Book  on  Natural  History,  which  you  have  recently  published. 

I  have  examined  them  with  some  care  and  appreciate  the  plan  of  commu- 
nicating the  elements  of  this  interesting  branch  of  science  in  so  cheap  and 
clwar  a  form. 

With  my  best  wishes  for  the  success  of  your  enterprise, 

I  am,  respectfully, 

LEVI  WOODBURY. 

OPINION  OF  THE  HON.  DANIEL  STURGEON, 

United  Stales  Senator  from  Pennsylvania. 

Senate  Chamber,  Washington  City,  Jan.  29th,  1842. 
MESSRS.  TURNER  &  FISHER. 

Gentlemen. — I  have  examined  with  some  care  the  two  small  volumes  you 
<vere  so  kind  as  to  send  me. 

I  think  Dr.  Ruschenberger  has  succeeded  in  condensing  into  as  small  a 
space  as  possible,  much  valuable  information  on  the  subject  of  which  he 
treats,  and  think  the  work  admirably  calculated  to  impart  general  knowledge 
on  this  interesting  subject. 

I  will  be  pleased  to  see  it  adopted  in  our  high  schools  and  colleges  as  a 
textbook. 

With  sentiments  of  respect  and  esteem,  yours, 

DAN'L  STURGEON. 

OPINION  OF  THE  HON.  SAMUEL  L.  SOUTHARD, 

United  States  Senator  Jrom  New  Jersey. 

Washington,  Feb.  15th.  1842. 
MESSRS.  TURNER  &  FISHER. 

Dear  Sirs, — I  am  gratified  by  your  kindness,  in  sending  me  the  two 
volumes  referred  to,  in  your  letter  of  the  31st  of  January.  I  entirely  concur 
in  the  objects  you  desire  to  accomplish.  Few  things  can  be  more  important 
to  our  common  country.  My  incessant  and  inexorable  duties,  have,  thus  far, 
prevented  me  from  making  that  examination  of  the  volumes  which  I  desire. 
I  am  respectfully,  &c.  &c. 

SAMUEL  L.  SOUTHARD 


RECOMMENDATORY    NOTICES. 

OPINION  OF  GEORGE  M'CLELLAN,  M.  D. 

Professor  of  the  Institutes  and  Practice  of  Surgery,  in  the  Pennsylvania 

College  of  Medicine. 
MESSRS.  TURNER  &  FISHER. 

I  have  examined  the  two  first  of  the  Series  of  Dr.  Ruschenberger's  First 
Books  of  Natural  History,  with  much  attention,  and  take  great  pleasure  in 
giving  my  opinion  in  their  favour.  They  are  admirably  calculated  to  diffuse 
a  sound  knowledge  of  first  principles  in  the  sciences.  They  are  axiomatic 
in  their  design  and  character,  and  are  constructed  on  the  true  principles  oi 
inductive  philosophy.  The  general  propositions  all  comprehend  true  minor 
ones,  and  also  the  individual  facts.  They  appear  to  me  to  have  been  drawn 
up  according  to  Bacon's  strictest  method  of  exclusions  and  rejections.  I 
have  made  the  first  of  the  series  a  text  book  in  my  private  class;  and  have 
found  it  to  facilitate  the  business  of  communicating  an  accurate  and  precise 
knowledge  to  the  best  educated  among  the  students  of  medicine  and  surgery. 

GEORGE  M'CLELLAN. 

Philadelphia,  March  7.  1842. 

OPINION  OF  THO'S  D.  MUTTER,  M.  D., 

Professor  of  the  Institutes  and  Practice  of  Surgery,  in  the  Jefferson  Medical 
College,  Philadelphia. 

Philadelphia,  Jan.  18,  1842. 

DR.  RrjSCHENBERGER. 

Dear  Dr. — I  have  carefully  examined  the  "  Second  Book"  of  your  very 
valuable  series  on  "  Natural  History,"  and  cordially  unite  with  many  others 
in  bearing  testimony  to  its  merits. 

The  study  of  Natural  Sciences  has  been  too  much  neglected  in  our  "  sys- 
tems of  education,"  and  nothing  can  remedy  the  evil  but  the  publications  by 
individuals  whose  reputations  will  be  a  sufficient  guarantee  to  the  public  as 
to  the  value  of  their  labours  of  well  arranged,  lucid,  and  at  the  same  time 
scientific  works  upon  these  subjects.  I  need  hardly  say  that  the  series  now 
under  issue,  possesses  all  the  attributes  of  success. 

Very  faithfully,  yours, 

THO'S  D.  MUTTER. 

OPINION  OF  ROBERT  M.  BIRD,  M.  D. 

Professor  of  Materia  Medica,  and  the  Institutes  of  Medicine,  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania College  of  Medicine. 

Philadelphia,  February  21,  1843L 
MY  DEAR  DOCTOR. 

After  a  very  careful  examination  of  your  Mammalogy,  or  Second  Book  of 
Natural  History,  from  the  text  of  Edwards  and  Comte,  it  affords  me  pleasure 
to  bear  witness  to  its  merits.  It  is,  like  the  First  Book  of  the  Series,  on 
Physiology  and  Animal  Mechanism,  extremely  well  adapted  to  the  purpose 
for  which  it  was  written,  of  opening  to  the  pupils  of  our  higher  schools  and 
colleges,  the  great  field  of  Natural  History,  and  grounding  them  in  the 
principles  of  classification,  while  imbuing  them  with  a  love  of  the  science 
and  the  introduction  of  such  works  into  our  schools,  cannot  be  otherwise 
than  favourable  to  the  interests  of  education. 

Very  respectfully  yours,  &c, 

ROBERT  M.  BIRD, 

W.  S.  W.  RUSCHENBERGER,  M.  D. 


SEHIES. 


F I P >        BOOK  S 


OF 


iTUEAL    HISTOKY, 

FO;  COLLEGES,  AND  FAMILIES. 

1.  ELEMENTS  OF 

TO-MY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY. 

ELEMENTS  OF 

MAMMALOGY, 

T  h  r  Natural  Pistory  of  Quadrupeds. 

•»  L  0  G  Y, 

The 

HI  KPETOLOGY  AXI)  ICHTHYOLOGY, 

Tht  -       -iral  History  of  Reptiles  and  Fishes. 

OF 

CO^CHOLOGY, 

T'»e  Natural  History  of  Shells  and  Mollusca. 

6.  ELEMENTS  OF 

E  N  TO  MO  LOGY, 

The   Natural   Hi^ior*   of  Insects. 

7.  ELK"  OP 

BOTANY, 

The    Natural    History    of    Plant*. 

E  0  L  0  G  Y, 

The  Natural  History  of  the  Earth's  Structure. 

11  the  ri 


